Part I: Definitions and Characteristics Deaf/Hard of Hearing

Hearing disabilities occur on a continuum from mild to more serious impairments to the ability to process auditory cues. Deafness is a spectrum of disabilities referring to anything from mild hearing impairments to fully identifying with the Deaf community and culture (Taylor, Smiley & Richards, 2009). Defining deafness or hard of hearing requires various types of assessments, including those that determine responsiveness to various types of sounds and their decibel levels. Hearing loss can also be defined according to cause or type (such as damage to the auditory nerves), degree of hearing loss (whether a person can hear some sounds but not others), and also age of onset or etiology (Taylor, Smiley & Richards, 2009). According to laws like IDEA, though, hearing disabilities may also be defined by the degree to which they impact the student’s performance in school (Taylor, Smiley & Richards, 2009). The degree to which the student can process auditory stimuli or use language will have a strong bearing on their performance in a general education classroom.

Because hard of hearing and deafness vary so much, there is no one set of characteristics that distinguishes this group of students. Some deaf children will identify full with Deaf culture, which is defined by the use of a distinct language and “folk tradition,” with its own set of norms, myths, symbols, and traditions (Taylor, Smiley & Richards, 2009, p. 246). Students who identify with Deaf culture would likely prefer to go to specialized schools for the Deaf community. Yet not all students identify with Deaf culture.

Students who are hard of hearing or deaf may have few if any actual cognitive impairments, other than those that are traceable to the inability to process or produce sounds. Instructional strategies and classroom design should be based on “the uniqueness of each individual student,” with great respect for diversity and cultural context (Becker & Bowen, 2018, p. 356). At the same time, educators know that academic achievement in certain subject areas may suffer due to hearing impairments. The primary characteristics of hard of hearing or deaf students are not necessarily based on subject or content assessments but on speech and language characteristics (Taylor, Smiley & Richards, 2009). Qualified medical professionals should be entrusted with assessments and making recommendations for best practice educational environments.

Blind/Low Vision

Blindness and low vision, or visual impairments, also occur on a continuum. Measured in most cases by visual acuity assessments, legal definitions of blindness or low vision can be helpful for recognizing the diversity among students. The IDEA definition of low vision stresses the impact visual impairment may have on the student’s academic performance, encouraging educators to adapt classroom instructional techniques and the educational environment to offer students alternative means of taking in and processing information. If the classroom is oriented towards visual information processing, the teacher would need to make adaptations and alterations to include students who have low vision.

Characteristics of students who are blind or have low vision will vary depending on their medical assessments and the cause of their vision impairment. However, teachers do need to understand that being blind has no impact on general intelligence or the ability to learn (Taylor, Smiley & Richards, 2009). Students with low vision may struggle because they are unable to access the same instructional content as their peers, and likewise, might also demonstrate frustration in play and social contexts (Taylor, Smiley & Richards, 2009). When blind or low vision students are offered appropriate supports academically and socially, their performance in school can be at least on par with peers. Students who are low vision of course have different orientation and mobility skills than their sighted peers, though.

Other Physical and Health Disabilities

Because this category is broad, it is impossible to offer definitions that would apply to the entire diverse cohort. However, students with physical or health disabilities may have impairments that do in fact affect the student’s educational performance. Energy level or perceptual or cognitive processing may be different for students with specific physical and health disabilities. Within this broad category, IDEA includes traumatic brain injuries, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, orthopedic issues like cerebral palsy, asthma, heart conditions, and more (Taylor, Smiley & Richards, 2009). The main component of the definition of physical and health disabilities is that the physical issue adversely affects student academic or social performance in school. Yet characteristics of students with physical and health disabilities will vary tremendously depending on the condition, age of onset, and the severity of the issue.
Best Practice Instructional Strategies

Deaf/Hard of Hearing

Best practice instructional strategies for students who are Deaf or hard of hearing will vary depending on the individual. An individualized education plan (IEP) will reflect the strengths of the student and the need for specific adaptations in the learning environment. Research shows that diverse instructional strategies emphasizing comprehension and analysis, not rote learning, will assist in literacy development in spite of difficulties with auditory processing (Taylor, Smiley & Richards, 2009). Integrating Deaf studies into the curriculum may also help empower students in the use of sign languages (Taylor, Smiley & Richards, 2009). Teachers may need to use different communication modes such as oralism, bilingual/bicultural strategies, and the “total communication” approach (Taylor, Smiley & Richards, 2009, p. 256). Teachers may also need to adapt the actual classroom environment to help students who are hard of hearing acquire content and process auditory stimuli, or to be more visually engaged with the classroom materials. Of course, assistive technologies can be tremendously helpful when working with students who are hard of hearing (Taylor, Smiley & Richards, 2009). As with all students with special needs, family involvement in transition planning is critical for the success of the child’s education (Taylor, Smiley & Richards, 2009). Advocacy entails pairing the student’s interests and predilections with available opportunities.

Blind/Low Vision

Blind and low vision students benefit from active family engagement in the IEP and personalized instructional content or adaptations to the classroom environment. Because low vision has no bearing on cognitive or intellectual abilities, teachers can open the general education or expanded core curriculum for visually impaired students, simply paying attention to how the content is delivered and how the student expresses learning or skill mastery (Taylor, Smiley & Richards, 2009). Best practices for students who are blind or low vision include shifting the classroom design to accommodate for mobility and orientation challenges, and promoting more social interaction with peers (Taylor, Smiley & Richards, 2009). Assistive technologies are critical for teaching students with low vision or blindness (Thomas, Barker, Rubin, et al., 2015). Transition planning for students with low vision may also include opportunities to develop independent living skills and self-determination, as well as general career planning (Taylor, Smiley & Richards, 2009). The principles of the least restrictive environment applies equally as well to visual impairments as auditory or physiological disabilities.

Physical and Health Disabilities

For students with physical and health disabilities, instructional strategies will vary depending on the condition and circumstances. Ongoing monitoring and assessment of the student are…