Decision making is a term that can be described as the process of choosing between alternatives and entails identification, development, and selection. Based on academic literature decision making and analysis can be widely divided into two schools of thoughts i.e. analytic and experiential or incremental decision making processes (Sipp & Carayannis, 2013, p.18). The analytic school of thought on decision making and analysis primarily focuses on problem definition and identification, assessment and selection of alternatives. In this school of thought, implementation in the decision making process basically entails simple execution of the cautiously selected alternative. On the contrary, even though experiential or incremental school of thought incorporates the two major steps in decision making just like the other school of thought, it focuses more on the execution of the alternative. This school of thought on decision making also utilize feedback to make necessary adjustments to the selected alternative in order to enhance the effectiveness of the decision or alternative. Generally, while there are two major perspectives or schools of thought regarding decision making and analysis, academic literature on this issue demonstrates that the decision making process is based on three major steps. These steps include the definition of the problem to be addressed, identification, analysis and selection of alternatives, and implementation or execution of the selected alternative. These steps are utilized in the two varying aspects of decision making and analysis though they differ with regards to their main focus in the decision making process. These three major steps in decision making and analysis are used in defining the process since decision making and analysis simply entails choosing between alternatives based on their efficacy and effectiveness in addressing the identified problem or issue.

Practitioner literature of decision making and analysis concurs with academic literature on the premise that the process is centered on making appropriate choices between alternatives. Practitioner literature supports academic literature by suggesting that the process of decision making and analysis comprises three major stages i.e. identification, development, and selection. Therefore, the main focus of this process is to determine the most suitable alternative to solve a problem or issue (Mykkanen & Vos, 2015, p.2). From an organizational context, decision making and analysis is a social process that involves and/or is influenced by all organizational stakeholders. Unlike in the past when leadership and employees were expected to conduct the decision making and analysis process, the current organizational context requires the involvement of all stakeholders because of their role in the organization's operations and activities. Consequently, these stakeholders need to possess a wide range of knowledge, skills, and abilities for suitable contributions to the decision making and analysis process. Once the problem has been defined and suitable alternatives generated, the stakeholders are involved in negotiation and/or co-creation of a suitable alternative followed by its implementation.

Part 2 -- Organizational Change and Development

Organizational change and development is an issue that has attracted considerable attention or focus in the recent past, especially with the rapid changes that continue to take place in the modern society and business environment. Actually, increased economic pressure and ever-changing political priorities have forced organizations to increasingly prioritize organizational change and development. The increased attention has contributed to numerous studies being conducted on the issue by scholars and practitioners alike. The increased significance of organizational change has contributed to the emergence of growing body of literature that not only examines the concept and its related processes but also focuses on factors that contribute to effective or successful organizational change and development.

Academic literature on the issue has focused on change management processes within organizations and some major factors contributing to resistance to change. Based on this literature, organizational change and development is not only a field or process but can also be considered as a profession. According to Van Nistelrooij & Sminia (2010), organizational change and development is a field and profession that is characterized by different approaches and methods (p.407). Some of the most common stakeholder techniques that have been used to define organizational change and development include scenario planning, appreciative inquiry, and whole-scale change. Since organizational change and development is a field and profession, it has expanded to include small-group dynamics rather than simply relying on individual dynamics, which makes it applicable to interpersonal matters and strategic issues.

Manuela & Clara (n.d.) provide a different perspective of organizational change and development based on their observations of the process. They contend that organizational change and development is an empirical observation in an organization depending on differences in quality, state, and shape over time....

Notably, these differences are evident following the intentional introduction or development of new thinking patterns, new activities, and new ways of operating. Their consideration of organizational change and development as a process rather than a field or profession is influenced by the main objective of the process. In this case, the main objective of organizational change and development is to promote adaptation to the environment and/or contribute to better performance.
Pieterse, Caniels & Homan (2012) concur with this definition and general aim of organizational change and development by reckoning that organizations are increasingly changing and adapting constantly in order to remain competitive (p.798). However, while organizations change and adapt to enhance their competitiveness, the change process is usually motivated or influenced by several strategic considerations. In addition to strategic considerations, the process of organizational change and development is also influenced by the need for more integrated means of working and the need to enhance business performance. These factors combine to generate structured change programs that are based on the belief that change management entails a series of interventions and practices. These interventions are considered to be objective, quantifiable, and linearly controllable programs or initiatives that can be accomplished within a short period of time relative to the desired objectives.

The existing academic literature on organizational change and development has been characterized by many confusing and contradictory theories and research findings regarding the process of change management and its success. These contradictory and confusing theories emerge from the fact that existing academic literature is drawn from a broad range of theoretical perspectives and disciplines, which generates complexities (Barnard & Stoll, 2010). One of the most influential perspectives in current academic literature on the process of organizational change and development is Lewin's Theory, which proposes planned approaches to change. The theory suggests that organizational change and development comprises three major steps i.e. unfreezing existing behavior, transitioning to new behavior, and refreezing the new behavior. This three-step model has been adopted for several years, especially in academic literature, as the major framework for understanding organizational change and development.

Following a review of Lewin's three-step model for understanding organizational change and development, other approaches have been developed. In attempts to make the stages of this process more specific, Bullock and Batten created a new approach i.e. a four-stage model where organizational change and development involves exploration, planning, action, and integration. The other approach to be developed is the emergent approach, which is considered as an alternative to planned approaches towards organizational change and development. Based on this approach, organizational change and development is rapid and unpredictable, which implies that it cannot be managed from the top down (Barnard & Stoll, 2010). The emergent approach suggests that organizational change and development should be viewed as a process of learning through which the organization effectively responds to internal and external changes in the environment. Therefore, this model does not provide specific pre-planned stages for understanding or explaining organizational change and development but is centered on readiness for change and facilitating change and development.

Given the significance of organizational change and development in the modern business environment, resistance to change is an issue that has also attracted considerable attention from scholars. According to Pieterse, Caniels & Homan (2012), resistance to change is one of the major contributing factors to low success rates in organizational change and development programs (p.799). Actually, scholars agree that there is need for a more nuanced outlook of this issue in order to generate conclusive factors that generate it. The resistance to change, which partly hinders the success of organizational change and development programs, is attributed to issues related to employees (Pieterse, Caniels & Homan, 2012, p.799). Barnard & Stoll (2010), support these claims by contending that one of the fundamental elements in the success organizational change and development is acceptance of such programs by employees. This is primarily because humans undergo different stages of grief when faced with change or loss i.e. denial, anger, negotiation, depression, and acceptance. As employees undergo these stages, they are more likely to resist programs and initiatives focusing on organizational change and development, which lowers their success rates.

Manuela & Clara (n.d.) divide the sources of resistance to organizational change and development into five groups i.e. distorted perception, low motivation, lack of creative response, political and cultural…