Crime and Social Theory
Deviance Interpreted by Social Theories
Illicit Drug Use
Illicit drug use has historically been seen as a global threat towards society and a primary contributing factor for the prevalence other crimes, such as smuggling, home invasions, property crimes, assault, and murder. In 1969 President Nixon stated publicly that illicit drug use is a serious national problem and in 1971 declared the "War on Drugs" (National Public Radio, 2007). Over the two decades since, other governments around the world, including the United Nations, followed suit, but differed substantially from the United States in how much emphasis was placed on deterrence through incarceration (Bewley-Taylor, Hallam, and Allen, 2009, p. 1).
Prevalence of Illicit Drug Use
An estimated 21.8 million Americans were using illicit drugs in 2009, which represents about 8.7% of the population (Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, 2010, p. 1). Of these, 16.7 million used marijuana, 1.6 million cocaine, 1.3 million hallucinogens, 7.0 million prescription psychotherapeutic drugs, and 0.5 million methamphetamine. As a group, illicit drug use among juveniles aged 12 and 17 was more prevalent (10.0%) than among the general population.
Consequences of the War on Drugs
Since the War on Drugs began around 30 years ago millions of Americans have been arrested, imprisoned, and had their lives forever changed for the worse, sometimes for nothing more than possessing a small amount of marijuana (Mauer and King, 2007). The number of drug offenders in prison has increased 1100% since 1980 (Mauer and King, 2007, p. 2), while the general population increased by less than 40% during the same period (Negative Population Growth, 1999; U.S. Census Bureau, 2011).
Source: Bureau of Justice Statistics (
http://bjs.ojp.usdoj.gov/content/glance/drug.cfm
) The dramatic increase in the prison population was fueled by a 3-fold increase in the number of drug arrests made (Mauer and King, 2007, p. 3; see figure to the right). Drug penalties in the U.S. are not applied equally to all racial groups, with minorities shouldering most of the burden. For example, 14% of African-Americans use drugs, but 37% of arrests and 56% of incarcerated drug users in the U.S. are African-American (Mauer and King, 2007, p. 2).
The Iron Fist of Congress
The threat of incarceration became the primary deterrent in the War on Drugs and harsher penalties were made into law to back this threat up. The passage of the Anti-Drug Abuse Act in 1986 and again in 1988, removed judicial discretion from the judicial process by imposing mandatory sentences for drug offenses (Mauer and King, 2007, p. 7). The overall effect was to increase the percentage of drug offenders being sent to prison (17%) and the amount of time served (3-fold; Mauer and King, 2007, pp. 7-8). By 2004, close to 93% of all drug offenders were being sent to prison.
Taking a Step Back Towards Sanity
More recently, the move towards harsher penalties has been moderated somewhat by the passage of the Fair Sentencing Act of 2010, which reduced the disparity in sentencing for those convicted of crack cocaine and cocaine, relaxed judicial guidelines regarding mitigating circumstances, and eliminated mandatory minimum sentences for simple possession (U.S. Congress, 2010). A recent decision by the U.S. Sentencing Commission will retroactively apply these changes to those already convicted and serving time. With 81.7% of all drug arrests being for possession and 6 out of 10 low-level drug offenders having no record of criminal violence, those facing possible early release could number in the 100s of thousands (Mauer and King, 2007, pp. 2-3).
Sociological Theory
Research has shown significant geographic differences in the prevalence illicit drug use (Lo, 2003). This suggests social context plays an important determining role, even though the justification and prosecution for the War on Drugs has emphasized individual factors. The social-context factors that may be driving illicit drug use include the following (Lo, 2003, p. 240):
Deviance Interpreted by Social Theories 8
Crime On March 9th, 2013, two New York City police officers shot and killed a sixteen-year-old Kimani Gray, and claimed afterward that he had brandished a handgun at them after being told to show his hands (Goodman, 2013). More remarkable than the New York Police Department's killing of a young black male, however, was the outpouring of community grief and anger that followed the shooting. The following Monday, March 11th, saw
This is also true of defendants labeled as child molesters -- even if not convicted, the label or suspicion is so insidious, it is difficult for juries or even witnesses to apprehend the facts with an unbiased eye ("In the Supreme Court of the United States," 1990, IPT). There is also a psychological reason for labeling theory, suggested by this example of prejudice -- once a first impression is
If integration with a conventional social group helps prevent suicide and "delinquency" (Hirschi 1969) and motivates people to fight, make sacrifices for a community, or commit deviant acts on behalf of a sub-cultural group, it should affect almost all forms of deviance. The absence of social integration with conventional groups should be influential in psychotic behavior (unless that specific behavior is organically determined and totally uncontrollable); without integration into
This in turn more often than not leads the stigmatized to acquire more and more deviant and possibly criminal identities (Lanier & Henry, 1998). There can, of course, be other antecedents prior to labeling that can enhance the process of delinquency in juveniles. Mental and/or psychological impairments must also be considered as a contributing factor. Certain of these attributes can also contribute to highly suggestible levels in regards to behavior
Furthermore, it is suggested that the roots of the problem lie deeper than the superficial debate about gun control. In sociological terms, this problem is to do with the lack of meaning and the breakdown of inherent normative structures. In this sense the debate about gun control should be seen against the underlying background of these sociological issues. Even if a compromise was be reached about whether or not to
Travis Hirschi's Social Bonding Theory The theorist, Hirschi, asserts that those who exhibit deviant behavior desire to do so and that criminal behavior is seen among people with weak social bonds. In his social bonding model, he delineated four elements which make up social bonds, namely, attachment to partner/spouse, engagement in conforming behaviors, holding conventional beliefs and values, and dedication to conventionality (Wolfzorn, Heckert & Heckert, 2006). The theorist indicates that
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