Epidemics and Smallpox in Colonial America
In 1992, the Smithsonian Museum held an exhibit on the process of exchanges between the Old World and the New World that resulted from the explorations of Christopher Columbus.
The exhibit, entitled Seeds of Change, focused on five catalysts or "seeds" which had the most far-reaching consequences for both Europe and the new colonies in the Americas. These catalysts were the horse, sugar, the potato, corn and disease.
This paper focuses on disease as a catalyst, paying special focus on the role of smallpox in subjugating the Native American nations. The first part is an overview of how various diseases have affected North American Indians, from the arrival of the first Europeans in the 1500s to the Spanish missionaries who first came to Mexico and California in the 18th century. The body of the paper focuses on the use of disease - particularly smallpox - as a biological weapon against the Native Americans during the Seven Year's War.
Finally, the paper assesses the short- and long-term effects that disease has had, on both the Old and the New Worlds. These effects include the decimation of the Native American population as a whole, as seen in the decrease from 500 distinct groups in 1500 to only 300 federally-recognized Native American groups by 1900. Secondary effects of the epidemics of disease include declines in animal population and the promotion of the slave trade, as slaves were shipped from Africa to provide much-needed labor in the American colonies. In many ways, this paper shows that effects of biological weapons such as smallpox and influenza continue to be felt today.
The Columbian Exchange
The cultural and biological changes that resulted after the 15th century European "discovery" of the New World are often referred to as the Columbian exchange. During this period, there was a one-way transfer of religion, as European settlers and missionaries converted much of the Indian population in South American and the Caribbean to Catholicism.
Aside from religion, however, a variety of plants, animals and disease were exchanged between the populations. The arrival of horses, called "skydogs," became a measure of value and helped revolutionize the economy of Plains Indians. The exchange of goods, services and even marriages were arranged according to number of horses. Horses also acquired spiritual significance for tribes like the Sioux, the Crow and the Nez Pierce.
The most immediate effect of the Columbian exchange, however, was seen in the massive decline of the Native American population. The European explorers were unwitting carriers of diseases such as smallpox and cholera, illnesses which were unknown in the New World. Because they lacked natural resistance, Native Americans quickly succumbed to the disease. They also transmitted the virus to other populations. In South America and the Caribbean, an estimated 8 to 20 million people died, many without even encountering a white man.
Bartolome de las Casas, a 16th century missionary who spent much of his life arguing for the rights of Indians, wrote that "I believe without trying to deceive myself that the number of the slain is more like fifteen million."
In the United States, the devastation brought about by war and disease continued. Experts now believe that the Native American population before the Columbian exchange was around 8 million. By the 1900, however, that figure had fallen to 400,000 in Europe and Canada.
Observers during the time interpreted the quick spread of smallpox in divergent ways. One Spanish soldier wrote that God was surely on the Spanish side during the conquest, since "when the Christians were exhausted from war, God saw fit to send the Indians smallpox." To the Native Americans, however, smallpox "a far more efficient killer than the white man's guns." Among the North American Indians, smallpox was known as "the rotting face."
Smallpox was only one of the epidemics resulting from the Columbian exchange. In addition to the disease of the rotting face, the Native American population was also felled by cholera, measles and the bubonic plague. Many of these diseases were spread by Caucasian fur traders as they ventured deeper into Native American territories. Employees of St. Louis-based furrier Francis A. Chardon, for example, unwittingly spread cholera and measles epidemics among the Mandan, Arikara and Hidatsa villages in the upper Missouri region river.
By the 18th century, the epidemics of diseases among Native populations continued. The Yakama Indians, for example, were struck by epidemics of smallpox, influenza, "ague" and other diseases. This time, however, the carriers were no longer the explorers but EuroAmerican immigrants, settlers and their descendants.
Smallpox and warfare
Because under the first Navigation Act" all American exports had to pass through British ports, and other foreign traders were not allowed to come into American ports, the higher price of imports hurt most American consumers and American businesses. On page 16 Newton quotes from a book by Jeremy Atack and Peter Passell: "Americans paid higher prices and earned smaller incomes than would have been the case if they had
The doctors were ineffective on account of the absence of proper medicines, pain killers and even the simple instruments of the trade like the thermometer and stethoscope. (Medicine and Health) The conditions of life in Colonial America - Health Issues All was not well with the colonial settlers. People died very young from various ailments like influenza, pneumonia, tuberculosis, smallpox, malaria, rickets and a host of waterborne diseases. We can attribute
But by the year of the revolution, the "various forces of discord between Britain and American had combined, and," Adams continues on page 84, the result of those forces of discord "…did not take the direction which would have found a place for the thirteen colonies within the British Empire Commonwealth" (Adams, 84). The Trade acts and Navigation acts were "extremely galling," Adams comments on page 85, and King
Colonial life was like in two different areas. The writer compares and contrasts the way of life experienced during colonial times in the Chesapeake area and the new England area during Colonial America. The writer used ten sources to complete this paper. Each year as Thanksgiving approaches students throughout the nation dress in traditional colonial garb and put on skits and meals to portray colonial life in America. While this
Born to Die Why did the native populations, such as the Incas and the Aztecs, appear to be, not equals to be met with military and diplomatic force, but as victims born to die in the eyes of the invading European powers? Why were they not feared, despite the extensive technological capacities of their civilizations, and the detailed political and religious theology these civilizations created? Simply put, the invading Europeans came
Obesity in the United States The extent of the Problem Obesity as one commentator says, is not just a "matter of aesthetics" but has become a major public health problem in the United States. Similarly, Federal health officials have categorically stated that "the growing prevalence of obesity in the United States represents a significant health threat to millions of Americans." Obesity is seen by health officials in a serious light and is
Our semester plans gives you unlimited, unrestricted access to our entire library of resources —writing tools, guides, example essays, tutorials, class notes, and more.
Get Started Now