Cultural Diplomacy and Soft Power: A Comparative Analysis

Introduction

Cultural diplomacy programs serve as valuable tools for countries to extend their global influence, projecting their cultural values, and fostering international relationships. This paper offers a comparative analysis of the cultural diplomacy programs of two major global powers: China and the United States. Each nation, wielding unique cultural resources and facing distinct challenges, employs cultural diplomacy in diverse ways to advance its global image and foreign policy goals. Through an exploration of the purposes, tools, operational contexts, and impacts of these programs, one can better understand how these activities advance artistic, financial, economic, and political purposes, thereby enhancing national brand image. One can also see, however, the ways that cultural diplomacy acts as a tool of soft power in a play for dominance among hegemons. In a world where digital technology is revolutionizing communication and interaction, understanding the dynamics of cultural diplomacy becomes even more important to the study of geopolitics. Ultimately, this analysis underscores the importance of mutual respect and appreciation in cultural diplomacy, due to its potential to not only serve as an effective tool of influence but also as a bridge bringing nations and peoples closer together. It also highlights the problems of what happens when this tool is used for power plays rather than for building a collaborative international environment.

What are Cultural Diplomacy and Soft Power?

Cultural diplomacy, a subset of public diplomacy, refers to the process where a nation's culture is used as a tool to foster mutual understanding and build relationships with other countries (Mulcahy, 1999). This form of diplomacy is about showcasing a country's cultural richness and diversity to the world, which in turn can foster mutual understanding, respect, and cooperation among nations. Cultural diplomacy can take many forms, such as cultural exchanges, educational programs, art exhibitions, music and film festivals, and language learning initiatives.

For instance, the British Council, the UK's international organization for cultural relations and educational opportunities, facilitates cultural exchanges by sending British artists, musicians, and authors to other countries to participate in events and collaborate with local creatives. In return, it also invites artists and scholars from around the world to the UK for similar engagements. This two-way exchange allows people from different cultures to appreciate each other's artistic and intellectual contributions, fostering mutual respect and understanding. This type of program is common among nations that have erected a framework for international cooperation. The Abraham Accords in the Middle East is another example of how this can take place.

On the other hand, soft power, a term coined by political scientist Joseph Nye, refers to a country's ability to shape the preferences of others through appeal, persuasion, and attraction rather than through coercion or force (Nisbett, 2016). It contrasts with hard power, which involves the use of military and economic means to influence the behavior or interests of other political bodies. Soft power is often associated with the attractiveness of a country's culture, political ideals, and policies. But what is the goal of soft power?

One of the most potent examples of soft power is the global influence of American culture, largely due to the dominance of its entertainment industry. Hollywood movies, American TV shows, music, and even fast-food chains like McDonald's are enjoyed and consumed worldwide. This global reach of American culture, combined with the appeal of its democratic ideals, contributes significantly to the United States' soft power, shaping how people worldwide perceive America and often engendering a positive disposition toward the country, even in regions where political relations may be strained. Through its use of soft power, the US maintains influence as a leading power around the world. For many decades the US stood as the leader in influencebut today its position of power is being challenged.

Comparing China and the US

China's cultural diplomacy program is a powerful manifestation of its global aspirations (Zanardi, 2016). The primary purpose of its cultural diplomacy is to foster a positive image globally, increase its soft power, and facilitate its rise as a global superpower. One example of its cultural diplomacy is the Confucius Institutes, a network of cultural and educational centers spread worldwide, is a significant tool of China's cultural diplomacy, aiming to promote Chinese language and culture (Zanardi, 2016). These Institutes provide language courses, host cultural events, and facilitate academic exchanges.

Chinese cultural diplomacy operates within the broader context of the Chinese government's ambitious foreign policy agenda (Zanardi, 2016). With its rapid economic development, China has sought to bolster its iternational image and counteract negative perceptions related to its political system and human rights issues. These efforts have seen mixed results. On one hand, the Confucius Institutes have successfully promoted Chinese culture and language, enhancing China's image as a cultural powerhouse. On the other, they have faced criticism and resistance in some countries due to concerns about propaganda and academic freedom (Zanardi, 2016).

Then there is the United States, with its powerful influence on global culture, which has leveraged cultural diplomacy to advance its own foreign policy goals (Mulcahy, 1999; Vogel, 1987). For example, the Fulbright Program has been one of the most influential tools in this respect, fostering mutual understanding between the United States and other countries through academic exchanges (Vogel, 1987). But another prominent example of the United States leveraging cultural diplomacy is through the use of international broadcasting. Networks such as Voice of America (VOA) and Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty (RFE/RL) have been pivotal in advancing American values and culture abroad, particularly during the Cold War era. Voice of America, established in 1942, broadcasts in more than 40 languages and reaches an estimated global audience of over 275 million people weekly. It spreads news, information, and cultural programming, and thus seeks to promote a positive view of the United States and its values of freedom, democracy, and human rights (Cull, 2008). Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty, meanwhile, was founded to spread news and information to Eastern European countries behind the "Iron Curtain." Even today, RFE/RL acts as a surrogate media in 23 countries where the free press is banned by the government or not fully established. Both of these networks serve as tools of cultural diplomacy, projecting American values and ideals to a global audience. The idea behind them is to promote Western ideals and and values. However, through these networks, the United States can craft narratives that present its actions in a favorable light and promote a positive image of the country and its culture (Cull, 2008).

The United States also utilizes the soft power of Hollywood, its music industry, and more recently, digital culture and social media platforms to project its cultural influence worldwide. The soft power of Hollywood (i.e., media) is a significant part of the USs cultural diplomacy toolchest. Hollywood and the American music industry are powerful drivers of the United States' soft power and serve as vital tools in its cultural diplomacy strategy. Their global reach and influence have a significant impact on how the world perceives American culture, values, and lifestyle.

Hollywood, in particular, has a profound impact on global culture. With its blockbuster movies and popular TV series, it reaches audiences worldwide, showcasing American stories, values, and perspectives. By doing so, Hollywood helps shape global perceptions of the United States. Its artists and celebrities share not only their music but also aspects of American culture and values, further enhancing the United States' soft power in parts of the world where native cultural ideals might be significantly different (Zamorano, 2016).

More recently, the rise of digital culture and social media platforms has added a new dimension to the United States' cultural diplomacy. American tech companies like Facebook, Google, and Twitter have redefined how people around the world communicate, share ideas, and access information. These platforms also allow for the rapid and broad dissemination of American cultural content, from viral YouTube videos to trending TikTok dances.

However, it is important to realize that while these elements of American culture can be attractive and influential, they are not universally embraced. Criticisms of American foreign policy, concerns about cultural imperialism, and differing cultural values can sometimes result in resistance or backlash. Therefore, while Hollywood, the American music industry, and digital culture are powerful tools of cultural diplomacy, their impact is somewhat contingent on various factors. Effective cultural diplomacy requires not just the export of culture but also mutual exchange, respect for other cultures, and a willingness to listen and learn.

China also uses film, music and digital technology to gain soft power. For instance, Chinas TikTok app is one of the most popular apps the world over. China has indeed been leveraging film, music, and digital technology as part of its cultural diplomacy and soft power strategy. The Chinese film industry, also known as "Chollywood," has been expanding its global reach with films that showcase Chinese history, culture, and values. Chinese pop music, or C-pop, is also gaining international attention, much like K-pop has for South Korea (Moxley, 2011).

A striking example of China's use of digital technology in its cultural diplomacy is TikTok, the video-sharing...

In comparison, the United States, traditionally a strong wielder of soft power, has long used tools such as cultural exchange programs, global aid initiatives, and its dominant position in international institutions to extend its influence. Yet, the U.S. has not rolled out a direct equivalent to the BRI. Instead, the U.S. has criticized the BRI for what it perceives as undermining the sovereignty of other nations through debt diplomacy and lack of transparency (Zhao, 2020). The U.S. promotes an alternative vision for global development centered on private investment, transparency, economic sustainability, and respect for sovereignty, as outlined in initiatives such as the Blue Dot Network (a multi-stakeholder initiative that aims to certify sustainable infrastructure projects) and the Build Act (which established the U.S. International Development Finance Corporation).

In essence, both the U.S. and China are leveraging their respective strengths to extend their influence. While China uses infrastructure development and economic investment (BRI), the U.S. promotes its model of sustainable, transparent development and democratic values. The effectiveness of these soft power tools, however, depends on how they are perceived by other nations, a perception shaped by a range of factors, including geopolitical considerations, historical relations, and cultural affinities (Nisbett, 2016).

Soft Power as Effective Propaganda

Soft power plays a significant role in shaping nationalistic narratives and asserting moral supremacy. Mainstream media, as a powerful tool of soft power, is often used to craft these narratives, influencing public opinion both domestically and abroad.

In the context of the United States, the role of mainstream media in influencing public perception became particularly evident during the invasion of Iraq in 2003. In the aftermath of the 9/11 attacks, the U.S. government justified the invasion by claiming that Iraq possessed weapons of mass destruction (WMDs), a claim that was later debunked. The mainstream media played a significant role in disseminating this narrative, thus shaping public opinion in favor of the war. This example illustrates how soft power, through the medium of mainstream media, can be used to craft a narrative that proclaims a nation's moral goodness or justifies its actions, even when those actions are contentious (Wyszomirski, Burgess, & Peila, 2003).

China's soft power strategy, on the other hand, is intricately tied to its nationalistic goals. The BRI is not only an economic project but also a tool for China to craft a narrative of itself as a global leader in infrastructure development and international cooperation. By promoting BRI, China is creating a narrative of its rise as peaceful and beneficial to the global community. This narrative is then disseminated globally through various channels, including mainstream media, reinforcing China's nationalistic goals (Zanardi, 2016).

Thus, it is important to note that soft power can backfire if it is perceived as propaganda or manipulation. The effectiveness of soft power lies in its credibility and mutual exchange. If a narrative is perceived as one-sided or manipulative, it can undermine a country's soft power and damage its international reputation (Nisbett, 2016). Soft power, particularly through the medium of mainstream media, plays a significant role in crafting nationalistic narratives and asserting moral supremacy. But its effectiveness depends on its credibility and the perception of the audience.

Conclusion

In conclusion, cultural diplomacy serves as a critical tool of soft power for nations, enabling them to foster mutual understanding and build relationships with other countries. This discussion examined the cultural diplomacy efforts of two major global players, the United States and China, highlighting the varying strategies and objectives of each. The United States has leveraged cultural diplomacy to advance its foreign policy goals, utilizing diverse tools such as the Fulbright Program, Hollywood, and international broadcasting networks like Voice of America and Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty. These tools have not only helped project American values and ideals globally but have also been instrumental in crafting narratives that serve American interests. Conversely, China has taken a multi-faceted approach to cultural diplomacy, focusing on the promotion of its language and culture through Confucius Institutes and leveraging its digital technology prowess with platforms like TikTok. China's Belt and Road Initiative is another example of its soft power strategy, used to project an image of a peaceful and cooperative global leader. However, the usage of soft power and cultural diplomacy is not without its challenges. Both nations have faced criticism and pushback, underscoring the complex dynamics of wielding cultural influence. It is also evident that the digital age has ushered in new opportunities and challenges in the realm of cultural diplomacy, as nations navigate the double-edged sword of digital technology. As such,…