3) a secure base - when the infant develops a healthy attachment, the mother becomes a 'secure base' from which the child can venture forth into the world and securely explore their surroundings.
Ainsworth is noted as the first to conduct empirical research assessing patterns of attachment behaviors in infant attachment relating to the mother being under stress. Infant attachment behavior was categorized as: (1) secure; (2) avoidant; and (3) ambivalent. Since then the behavioral patterns of infants has undergone intensive assessment and study with a core body of empirical findings replicating extensively the earlier research. The work of Bowlby (1973) acknowledged anger as being a natural response when the child, with the expectation of safety, when in close proximity to the attachment figure was jeopardized. It is believed by Bowlby that the root of anxious attachment is "dysfunctional anger." (Fonagy, 1999) Anxious attachment has been linked to behavior including violent behavior. Broussard (1995) found that anxious attachment is present in the majority of working class children.
Literature Review
Levy states in the 2005 Development and Psychopathology journal article: "The Implications of Attachment Theory and Research for Understanding Personality Disorder" that psychopathology researchers and theorists have now began to: "understand fundamental implications of BPD. Behaviors within the realm of those with this disorder include "...unstable, intense interpersonal relationships, feelings of emptiness, bursts rage, chronic fears of abandonment and intolerance for aloneness, and lack of a stable sense of self as stemming from impairments in the underlying attachment organization." (Levy, 2005) it is related by Levy (2005) that it has been noted among researchers that the characteristics of "Impulsivity, affective lability and self-damaging actions that are the hallmark of borderline personality occur in an interpersonal context." These are often known to occur after events in relationships whether they are real or imagined events. Levy (2005) holds that the individual difference is shown by evidence of research to be "rooted in interaction with caregivers" and have implications of importance in the individual's adaptations and development." (Ibid)
The work of Agrawal, Gunderson, Holmes, and Lyons-Ruth entitled: "Attachment Studies with Borderline Patients: A Review" states that it has been suggested by clinical theorists that disturbed attachments are central to borderline personality disorder (BPD) psychopathology. In this work thirteen empirical studies are reviewed in the attempt to examine the types of attachment of these studies. The types of attachments at these authors state are "most characteristic" of individuals with BPD are "unresolved, preoccupied and fearful." (Agrawal, Gunderson, Holmes, and Ruth-Lyons, 2004) in the BPD individual there exists a desire for intimacy while at the same time these individuals have a deep concern of dependency and rejection. It has been a suggestion since the inception of BPD diagnosis among clinical theorists that BPD is a disorder in which the core psychopathology arises: "within the domain of interpersonal relations." (Ibid) it has been as postulated by John Bowlby that all humans, just as primates, "are under pressures of natural selection to evolve behavioral patterns, such as proximity seeking, smiling, and clinging, that evoke caretaking behavior in adults, such as touching, holding and soothing." (Ibid) This is considered an affective tie between the infant and its caregiver thereby constituting an attachment. From these responses of the parents which are of a natural nature the infants development of internal models of both self and other form and function in the future as templates for relationships.
Bowlby holds that "the content of the internal working model of self is related to how acceptable or lovable one is in the eyes of primary attachment figures." It is through this model that the individual's perception of 'other' is related to "how responsive and available attachment figures are expected to be" (Ibid) if the child develops a 'secure' attachment then a positive self-image and a sense of being loved and this in combination with an expectations that is positive concerning the 'significant other' in their lives are usually receptive and respond positively to caring. Alternatively, the individual who does not develop a secure attachment: "contrasts dramatically with the malevolent or split representations of self and others, as well with the needy, manipulative, and angry relationships that characterize persons with BPD." (Ibid) Furthermore the models developed persist throughout the life of the individual forming their beliefs in regards to past, present and future interactions with the 'other' in their life. The individual with a secure attachment frees the child in their exploration of the world in confidence knowing that the availability of the caregiver is assured. A secure attachment is more likely to develop if the child has capacity in perceiving the thoughts of others. The core symptoms of BPD in 'Fonagy's theory to be inclusive of a diminished capacity to mentally represent other's feelings and thoughts...
People living with mental illness are often marginalized, demeaned, and seen as being outside the normal boundaries of society. For people with BPD, this is doubly painful as it reinforces their sense of worthlessness and victimization, and may even lead to suicide attempts. For those who can recognize they have BPD, yet not know how to deal with it, the social stigma may lead them to attempt to cope with
32) The overall diagnostic and symptomatic patterns described by these points indicate that BPD is a serious disorder and is "...classified as a major personality disorder involving dramatic, emotional, or erratic behavior; intense, unstable moods and relationships; chronic anger; and substance abuse." (Boucher, 1999, p. 33) There are a number of criteria which, in line with DSM-IV, are used to identify and characterize this disorder. The first of these criteria refers
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