¶ … resolve conflicting evidence that male homosexuality is correlated with similarities in the genetic markers from region Xq28 of the X chromosome. While many studies suggest a strong genetic and biological basis to sexual orientation, there is little persuasive, compelling, causal evidence to support this claim. Specifically, attempts to find a genetic correlate to homosexuality have proven elusive, and several attempts to replicate the finding of similarities of region Xq28 of the X chromosome in male homosexuals have proven problematic. This study will attempt to correct the methodological problems that may have been problematic in earlier studies, including problems with the use of self-selecting samples, small sample sizes, and problems with the definition of homosexuality.
The ideas and definitions surrounding human sexuality and sexual orientation can be more fluid and confusing than appear on the surface. To the outside world, primary sexual characteristics (such as a penis or vagina) determine whether an individual is male or female. Secondary sexual characteristics like breasts and body hair further confirm sexual identity. In addition, we speak about someone with XY sex chromosomes as being chromosomally male, while "males" may actually take other chromosomal forms. In addition, gender identity is an important component of sexual orientation. LeVay writes, "Most men have a deep inner conviction that they are male, and most women that they are female," thus forming their gender identity (3).
However, many factors show that sexual orientation can be fluid. Transsexuals show a confused sexual identity, suggesting that gender identity can exists in opposition to biological sexual characteristics. Sometimes, chromosomal sexual identity can be confused with external sexual characteristics, such as in an individual who appears to be male externally, but does not have the usual XY chromosome pattern of a chromosomal male. In addition, many cognitive characteristics and behaviors that are commonly different between the sexes (or sexually differentiated), such as aggressiveness and parental behavior, can be seen in either males or females (LeVay).
In the past century, there has been a great deal of debate whether sexual orientation is a biological trait that is genetically determined, or whether sexual orientation results from factors such as upbringing or environment. Religious groups tend to favor the camp that says sexual orientation is caused by environmental factors, but a plethora or recent studies is in favor of the idea that sexual orientation is genetically determined. While the majority of research on sexual orientation has focused on nature vs. nature controversy, some other theories have been proposed. These include hormonal influences, demonic possession, parental influences, viral or bacterial factors.
Literature Review
In the general population, the rate of homosexual orientation is estimated at between 2 and 10%. This variance is due to the specific criteria used to define homosexuality. Commonly, 4-5% of males are thought to be homosexual, while 2-4% of females are homosexuals (LeVay, 1994).
While male homosexuality is often the focus of familial studies, both male and female homosexuality has been shown to be familial in nature. Specifically, homosexual females have more homosexual brothers than heterosexual females. Similarly, homosexual males have more homosexual siblings than heterosexual males (Bailey and Bell, 1993; Bailey and Benishay, 1993).
Studies of monozygotic (identical) twins reveal that there is a strong genetic component to human sexual orientation. Specifically, a study of thirty-eight pairs of monozygotic twins (34 male and 4 female pairs) found that the twins had a concordance rate of 65.8% for homosexual orientation, while twenty-three pairs of dizygotic twins had a concordance rate of 30.4% for homosexual orientation (Whitam, Diamond and Martin, 1993). Bailey and Pillard (1991) reported similar rates of concordance for homosexual orientation. In Bailey and Pillard's study, 52% of monozygotic cotwins, 22% of dizygotic cotwins, 11% of adopted brothers, and 9.2% of nontwin biological siblings were had a homosexual orientation. Interestingly, childhood gender nonconformity did not seem to be linked to homosexuality in adulthood (Bailey and Pillard, 1991).
Similarly, a 2000 study of monozygotic twins found a 32% concordance rate for non-heterosexual orientation in monozygotic twins, as opposed to 13% for dizygotic twins of the same sex. The study measured 3,000 people in a random national sample in the United States (Kendler et al., 2000).
Further, studies of the families of male homosexuals suggest that sexual orientation has a genetic basis. In Hamer et al.'s 1993 study of 114 families of homosexual men, increased rates of same-sex orientation were linked to the both the male cousins and maternal uncles of homosexual men. Sexual orientation was not linked to...
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