¶ … Free Will: Comparing Aquinas & the Holy Scriptures
Thomas of Aquinas is recognized by the Orthodox as one of the foundational theologians, particularly in that he provided an important step in towards the Renaissance by helping to reacquaint Christianity with Aristotle, who he refers to throughout his as "the Philosopher." As one who draws inspiration from Aristotle, he is particularly interested in rational philosophy as applied to the realm of religion and theology. This makes his defense of free will particularly strong, though at points one feels he lacks the necessary sense of ambiguity to completely address the Biblical texts. What is important to glean from his work, however, is a message that is also prominent in the Scriptures: that man is "made to God's image, in so far as the image implies an intelligent being endowed with free-will and self-movement..."
Summa Theologica, II:1:1)
Some thinkers believe that humans do not have free will, but that our actions are determined either by our environment or by God himself; Thomas Aquinas recognizes and addresses these objections masterfully. One objection is that our actions do not display free will because they are determined by what modern functionalists would call outside stimuli, and result entirely from outside determing factors. He answers this by explaining that they free will is an intrinsic act, but it can have extrinsic influences. Free will is defined by the inclination of the knowledgeable mind towards a specific end -- and while the desirability or possibility of an end may be determined by circumstances, the inclination resides in the will. His response to the claim that free will cannot exist because God determines our future and holds all our movements in his mind is a little less satisfactory. He mainly suggests that God's influence is similar to any other extrinsic influence, but when he cannot entirely hold up this point in argument he draws his argument from definitions. This needs to be addressed in more detail to be completely understood. However, the primary threat to the doctrine of free will in our modern time does come from behaviorists and their ilk who suggest outside forces control the mind, and this Aquinas refutes neatly.
His argument for free will explains that while a rock which is thrown does not have free will in deciding to fall, this is because it has no knowledge or decision making power. Yet a human who jumps and falls has a knowledge of the reason behind their actions, and falls then according to the inclination of his desires. Drawing from Aristotle, Aquinas defines will as being primarily based in knowledge of intended ends and in the inclination that leads to actions towards those end. He says: "those things which have a knowledge of the end are said to move themselves because there is in them a principle by which they not only act but also act for an end...Therefore, since man especially knows the end of his work, and moves himself, in his acts especially is the voluntary to be found." (ST: II: 6:1)
Aquinas presents a very rational argument that, while Christian in nature, does not depend on Scripture for its entire justification. However, it is also possible to have arguments for and against free will from scripture alone. If one were to object to the idea of free will from a Biblical standpoint, one might bring up both the idea of God's omnipotence typified in verses such as John 15:5 which says "Without Me you can do nothing." Many theologians, especially of the amateur sort, might think that this suggests God makes all the decisions himself and that our own choices are just an illusion covering up the decisions he already decided we would make. God's stated pre-knowledge of all our choices makes this a more seductive idea.
Additionally, the fact that human choices are frequently attributed to God or Satan might make a case for this. For example, in Exodus Pharaoh chooses repeatedly to deny the Israelites their freedom, and each time God punishes him for his choices. Yet, at the same time, almost every time the text says some version of: "the LORD hardened Pharaoh's heart, so that he would not let the children of Israel go..." (Exodus 10:20) So one might suggest that we only choose what God tells us to choose, and that real choice is an illusion.
However, the Bible seems to suggest that this is not what...
Even if they may not have the same force as divine law, the laws should not contradict the laws of heaven. This binding injunction to the people to obey also applies to rulers -- monarchs should not contradict the will of the divine, and endeavor to create a state that mirrors that of God. For example, Aquinas prohibited usury, or charging money at interest given Christ's condemnation of money
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