Learning Theories of ELLs and School Culture Situated cognition theory;

Situated cognition theory states that the knowledge that people possess is embedded in their activities, culture and context within which it is learned. This type of learning is also commonly referred to as "situated learning." A lot of learning practice methods assume the acquisition of knowledge from the situation of learning an applied theory. Critics point out that such an assumption inhibits the effectiveness of the teaching practice. Inferences from recent research indicate that knowledge is situated as is partly a product of the activity, context and culture in which it is hatched and applied. Researchers have cast light on how this perspective of knowledge influences an understanding of the learning process. They point out that conventional schooling often ignores the critical role of the school of culture in the overall learning that goes on at school. These researchers have proposed cognitive apprenticeship (Brown, 1989) as a viable alternative to conventional schooling methods. This approach recognizes the situated nature of knowledge.

Situated cognition is a dramatic shift from the traditional psychological theories of learning. It departs from the individual-based and mechanistic approaches of learning. It moves towards emergent perspectives of learning that incorporate the social role (J.G., 1998), (Lave, 1991) (Brown, 1989). The situated learning theory is credited to these authors. (A., 1988), explains situated learning as the process in which skills and knowledge are acquired in contexts that mirror the way that they will be applied in real life scenarios. (p. 2). Situated learning proponents, therefore expect that instructors will subject learners to situations that resemble the contexts that the knowledge is meant to be applied (Schell, 1997). Cognitive apprenticeship approaches are practical learning methods that seek to put learning in its relevant context (Brown, 1989). For instance, in a tennis training course, the trainees are coached on such basic skills as backhand serve, forehand serve and more. However, the most important element lies in the practical aspect that involves watching the experts model the skills, get expert coaching lessons and most fundamentally, hone their skills by participating in real practical matches governed by the rules of the game. (Lave, 1991), describes learning as a core part of the generative social pursuits in the world one lives in. This definition carries a heavy analytical angle that points to the fact that in generative practice, learning involves creation and co-creation. The social implication highlights the reality that learning occurs, at least, with another person in partnership. Lived in world refers to the reality that people live in the real world that make learning a relevant practice, useful and transferable. From this standpoint, it suggests that the acquisition of a foreign language will be more successful if learners are exposed to conversational and socio-cultural activities that aim at increasing the complexity and diversity, as opposed to focusing on concrete grammar nuances and exercises by paper and pen worksheets. Dynamic communities are an integral element of situated cognition theory of learning. This implies that learning not only involves learners and their teachers, but an assortment of others too. These may be drawn from the general community (Lave, 1991) such as business experts, electronic world technicians and the like. Learning communities are dynamic in the sense that the members assume varying roles at varying times as dictated by the needs of the learner. For instance, a student may bear the face of a learner, a coach or instructor at various times in the course of learning. If a learner has acquired the skills to place an object on a web page, they may proceed to teach others how to do the same. The theory of situated learning bears some antecedents in the work of Vygotsky (social learning) and Gibson (theory of affordances). In addition, Schoenfield's theories on problem-solving in mathematics bear essential elements in the situated learning approach. According to (A., 1988), there are four benefits that learners get from situated learning as the theoretical backing for learning. Students, firstly, learn the conditions meant for applying the knowledge that they acquire. Secondly, learners are more likely to pursue innovation and problem solving activities when the learning occurs in diverse and novel situations. The third element is that such a learning scenario allows students to come to grips with the implications of the knowledge acquired. Lastly, the learning scenario allows for the structuring of knowledge in a manner that enables them to make use of it in future by acquiring and applying...

It is based on the concept that communication is an essential element in language acquisition, and that the grammar and the accompanying structures should be learned only to polish the existing communication skills. If the learner is to acquire knowledge, communication needs to be effective. This also means that the learner must understand the message. According to Krashen and Turrell, the learning of a language and language learning are different processes. Learning a language involves inculcating the rules and consciously being aware of the dictates of grammar, including the ability to apply such knowledge of rules to given situations (Krashen, 1994). Proficiency in the English language and more so in academic English takes long. Language learners are taken through a regular routine and sequence, irrespective of their native language. Learners from some specified first language backgrounds substages in the sequence may be observable. Learners, therefore will progress at different rates based on an arrange of factors that may include native language, age, affective issues and more (Krashen S. a., 1983). Language acquisition refers to the ability to speak, understand and communicate in a second language effectively and fluently. It is imperative to point out that such conscious knowledge of grammar and its structures is only helpful if the three conditions below are met: the learners must be allowed time to listen and inspect the utterances and phonic dynamics of the new language before they attempt to speak; the student ought to be consciously aware of the correctness of words, sentences and their grammar forms; and there is need for the learner to learn when, how and where to apply the rule in conversation (Krashen, 1994).
Krashen incorporates affective filters in the learning process. He states that if the affective filter is high, it becomes hard for one to acquire the new language. The filters may be varying forms of stress or attitude. Low affective filters are better since such elements as stress and duress that affect the acquisition of the new language are lower. The following 5 factors may be useful in lowering affective filters: there should be a positive orientation to the language to be learnt; keeping anxiety at its lowest and securing the environment that the learning takes place is essential (in other words, if a class is focused on positive correction, provides for error correction without judging, encourages self-confidence and allows sufficient time for instruction and internalization of concepts, is an ideal environment that is typical of low anxiety); there should be more emphasis on positive feedback as opposed to negative criticism; it is important that the instructor remembers to maintain a positive error correction approach, especially when the learner is just starting off in the learning of the new language; And there is normally a period of silence that should not be confused form a learning disorder. The silent time is the span within which the students take their time to inspect the new language. Such a period tends to be longer in younger language learners. Once the learner emerges from the period of silence, they will pass through a four stage process of utilization. Language proficiency is attained via input, practice, and usage, interactions and, finally communication. According to Krashen (1994), one cannot effectively acquire language, unless such a learner deciphers words from the target language and has built sufficient vocabulary bank. It becomes easier to reconstruct a sentence that contains vocabulary items as opposed to constructing one with grammar structures (Rhalmi, 2009).

The learning rate varies with individual learners because opportunity to use the language and exposure varies from one learner to the next. Similarly, the sequence of acquiring specific English language structure varies from one learner to the next. It isn't a linear process. It is actually similar to a zigzag motion process, i.e. the regular past tense with the morpheme "ed" in its scripted form and uttered in three different ways. Mastery is a slow process that occurs of a long time as the student gets it right in varying contexts. This process continues until the learner progresses to master the subtleties of making exceptions to the rule in terms of pronunciation and spelling contexts. It then becomes a subconscious aspect of the learner's language acquisition abilities. Another example is the acquisition of the third person "s" in the singular present tense added to verbs. This element turns out to be acquired and incorporates into the learner's subconscious system after…