The Analects of Confucius

¶ … Analects of Confucius stands as one of the greatest classic texts of non-Western world philosophy. It might also be said to constitute a religious text, as it is supremely concerned with the state and citizen's relationship to heaven and the higher powers, as well as to the relationship of the state and its citizen body on earth. When the state and its ruler is in an orderly relationship to one another, stresses the text, then the state may be in a harmonious relationship with heaven, and all will be well. Over and over, in his exchanges with his students such as Mang Wu, Wang-sun Chia, and his fellow philosophers Tsze-kung, Confucius stresses the need for individuals to behave according to past precepts, to attain a state of harmony between the self, state, and the natural order. Obedience to present law, and the law of one's ancestors and the past schema of values is paramount.

In these statements Confucius' definition of what constitutes virtue and good governance of the state emerges as differing profoundly from the individualistic principles of American notions of the reason for human existence and what constitutes the purpose of effective governance. For Confucius, the purpose of good governance is harmony, and the duty of every human within the state is to fulfill his or her ideal function in the arranged social and heavenly order in furthering that state of harmony. The happiness of the individual and the role of the state of furthering individual or even collective happiness are secondary values to creating a state of universal societal and state harmony.

This notion of harmony is collective, meaning that all citizens of the state must fulfill his or her individual functions in his or her place for harmony to be achieved -- it is not enough to take comfort in one's own private businesses, harmony is something that is collectively achieved. However, these individual duties and functions are different for every individual in the social order. Obligations, for example, differ for women and men, daughters and sons, rulers and ruled, and young and old. The purpose, for example, of a young man is different from the purpose of a slightly older scholar. "A youth, when at home, should be filial, and, abroad, respectful to his elders. He should be earnest and truthful. He should overflow in love to all, and cultivate the friendship of the good. When he has time and opportunity, after the performance of these things, he should employ them in polite studies." (the Analects, Chapter 1) in contrast, it would be wrong for an elder to be deferential to a young man, and a scholar would have the duty to put his studies above cultivating friendships to advance his social, political, and familial position when at home and abroad.

Again, merely because required obligations functions differ for every individual does not mean that the individual can forget the collective universal state of harmony he or she is striving to achieve -- even if the young man is deferential, and observes the laws of filial piety, his father is similarly bound to certain obligations in honor of that duty, as he was to his father before him. Filial piety is another critical value for Confucius, for person is exempt from some individual form of filial or daughterly duty -- critical to the point that he devotes extensive portions of the text to this issue He notes, "while a man's father is alive, look at the bent of his will; when his father is dead, look at his conduct." In other words, look at the son's conduct in adhering to his family's values of the past, to keeping in mimicry of his father's actions while his father was still alive. Conservative behavior in this regard is paramount: "If for three years he does not alter from the way of his father, he may be called filial." (Analects, Chapter 1)

Thus, in defining what constitutes "the superior man," in Confucian philosophy, the superior man is conservative, follows his father's example, and follows societal dictates about duty and behavior. The master teacher states directly "the superior man bends his attention to what is radical. That being established, all practical courses naturally grow up. Filial piety and fraternal submission -- are they not the root of all benevolent actions?" The superior man does not innovate, but is judged upon how perfectly bows to the conventions that were established, to what moral truths and ideals have come before his existence on earth and in heaven. (the Analects, Chapter 1)

The superior also is deferential to his subordinates -- and aloof from those beneath him. Even when the student Tsze-kung asks Confucius "What do you pronounce concerning the poor man who yet does not flatter, and the rich man who is not proud?" The Master replied, "they will do; but they are not equal to him, who, though poor, is yet cheerful, and to him, who, though rich, loves the rules of propriety." In other words, even a poor man who is not socially aspiring should be cheerful in his or her deference. Furthermore, although the rich man may not be proud, he should observe some remove and propriety towards his subordinates and not be overly free in his social relations with his inferiors. (the Analects, Chapter 1)

Duty to who and what has come before, to both moral principles and the persons of one's answers, conformity rather than nonconformity and innovation is what is paramount in Confucian philosophy, in direct contrast to the American stress upon innovation in ideas, governance, and moral behavior. The assembler of the Analects quotes not only Confucius, but also Confucius quoting those who taught before him, stressing the continuity rather than the innovation of Confucian philosophy. "The philosopher Yu [is said to have said, according to Confucius] "In practicing the rules of propriety, a natural ease is to be prized." Confucius, in one's social mannerism additionally reinforces the idea that a lack of hard effort should be affected, rather than any illusion of social betterment and hard work and achieving an image of upward mobility, in contrast to American values. (the Analects, Chapter 1)

Also, rather than stress equality of all persons, the master states: "Have no friends not equal to yourself." Individuals must keep to their specific and enclosed stratum of society -- although Confucius does not state individuals should be compared with one another as better or worse, that women are not 'good' compared to men, for example, in a harmonious social order, all individuals are on a hierarchy, fulfill their functions on that hierarchy. This stress upon hierarchy in the pursuit of social harmony rather than social mobility means that a socially conservative state of affairs is achieved by following Confucian principles -- all individuals must fulfill their function on the ladder, from commoner to emperor, but each with different prescriptions of actions.