Academia and Life Through Literacy and Reading

¶ … Academia and Life Through Literacy and Reading Comprehension

Literacy and reading comprehension are subjects that have been explored for decades. Through these explorations we have discovered that comprehension is an essential component in the ability of a person to succeed in academia and in life.

Comprehension is defined as "the act or action of grasping with the intellect...the capacity for understanding fully."(The Dictionary) Comprehension is important because it allows us to gain knowledge of new concepts; without comprehension it would be impossible to learn anything.

This discourse will present a literary review of the aforementioned topic so that we can understand comprehension and the effect of comprehension on academic success. The literature presented will seek to display this information in a manner that will inform and enlighten.

Reading comprehension covers a broad range of topics. For the purposes of this literary review we will seek to explain what comprehension is and the effect that fiction and nonfiction works have on comprehension. This review will use a wide range of sources including journals, digests and academic studies.

First we will explore the rudimentary factors involved in reading comprehension such as, phonological memory and word recognition. This will be investigated through the review of a longitudinal study conducted in Finland with school children as participants. We will then survey other factors that effect reading comprehension such as time limitations and silent reading. These reviews will also be investigated through studies conducted at two different Universities with children and adults as participants.

We will then focus on the main topic of the paper, which will focus on comprehending fiction vs. non-fiction works. There will be a review of different literature related to this topic. There will be some background information provided concerning narratology and an international study on the comprehension of fiction and non-fiction works. Then we will explore the strategies used to aid students in comprehending fiction and non-fiction works. This exploration will detail a summary published by ERIC digest in 2000.

The next review of this topic will focus on using narrative works to explain expository subjects. This review will also focus on an article in ERIC digest that discusses the use of fiction text to teach geography. There will be an additional review of literature that discusses the use of narrative text to teach expository subjects. We will then focus on improving comprehension of non-fiction text. Finally we will discuss whether or not fiction or non-fiction is better for comprehension and conclude our literary review with a brief summary of our findings.

Rudimentary Facts About Reading Comprehension

To understand the broad concept of comprehension of fiction and non-fiction works we must first understand the basic factors that lead to good reading comprehension. The following study seeks to explain the basic mechanics of comprehension in young children.

Longitudal Study of Reading Comprehension longitudinal study conducted in Finland using 222 children from preschool through second grade sought to discover what roles phonological memory, phonological awareness, and word recognition play in reading comprehension. There were 100 girls and 122 boys from schools in an urban area involved in the study.

The children involved in the study ranged in ages from 6 to 8 years old; the average being 6 years 9 months. (Dufva, Niemi, and Voeten 2001; 96)

Researchers used three different span tests to conduct the experiment. The word span test presented the children with familiar words and then asked them to repeat the words in the order that they were presented. The sentence span test presented the children with a sentence and asked them to repeat the sentence. The last span was the digit scan test, which was administered using the Wechsler Intelligence Scale For Children. (Dufva, et al.; 97-98)

Phonological Memory

Phonological memory allows a reader to temporarily store the product of decoding before combining the phonemes to make a word. This is particularly important for children who do not have fully developed reading processes because it allows them to store information and interpret that information at a higher level. Previous studies have concluded that phonological memory contributes greatly to an individuals listening and reading comprehension skills. (Dufva, et al.; 92)

The longitudinal study found that phonological memory only plays a small role in phonological awareness amongst first and second graders and thus a small effect on word recognition amongst the same group. The study found that phonological memory did not effect reading comprehension but it did effect listening comprehension specifically at the preschool level.

The study also found that phonological memory in first grade students was directly correlated to word recognition when these students reached second grade. (Dufva, et al.; 91-92)

The Effects of Time Restraints on Reading Comprehension study measuring the effects of time restraints on reading comprehension was performed at Louisiana Technical University. Fifty-two females and 37 males made up the eighty-nine participants in the study. All of the participants were psychology students and college freshmen. All of these students received college credit for participating in the study. The purpose of the study was to investigate whether or not students' reading comprehension would improve under the pressure of time restraints.

Previous studies of similar scenarios, outside the domain of reading comprehension, concluded that time constraints create mindfulness and the participant is more focused and motivated to perform the task at hand and thus the task is completed thoroughly and with better results. (Walczyk, Kelly, Meche, and Braud 1999; 157) Also in a previous study performed by Walczyk the reading comprehension of participants was only measured against extreme time constraints. This experiment found that the reading comprehension of participants was poor when measured against extreme time restraints.

The current study will measure reading comprehension under no time pressure, extreme time pressure and under severe time pressure. The hypothesis is that the students that are under mild time pressure will be more focused than the students under no time pressure and consequently have better reading comprehension. Researchers predict that the students under severe time pressure will become frustrated and have very poor reading comprehension.

This experiment was conducted utilizing computer technology that measured stress and arousal levels and also the speed at which the students read. The actual results of the study found the following,

The best comprehension occurred for those reading under mild time pressure. More importantly, the enhanced comprehension of those in the mild pressure condition occurred more efficiently than those in the no pressure condition. They achieved greater text comprehension per unit time. The large standard deviations of those in the no pressure condition convey that many who read text under no time pressure spent a lot of time reading, perhaps more than was necessary." (Walczyk, et al.; 163)

The study concluded that mild time pressure increases effort and motivation among readers. On the contrary the study found that when severe time pressure is applied readers become overly aroused and have difficulty concentrating, which led to poor performances. (Walczyk, et al.; 164)

Silent Reading and Comprehension

In addition to time pressure, silent reading also has an impact on comprehension. In previous studies researchers found that students that could read fast silently processed more information and in doing so had better reading comprehension that required less effort. Furthermore the study concluded that students that are fast silent readers are more likely to enjoy reading and will continue to read in the future.

Previous studies also found that the number of words that students could read correctly per minute impacted their ability to comprehend. (Freeland, Jackson, McDaniel, Skinner and Smith, 2000; 416)

The participants in this study were three males from rural areas in the mid south ages 16,12, and 13. During this experiment the students were taken to a control room and told to read a passage silently and the researcher timed the readings. The experiment did not contain any time limits. (Freeland et al., 2000)

The study found that repetitious reading increased the silent reading rate and comprehension. The study concluded that accurate fast readers have a higher capacity to understand what they are reading. The study also found that repeated readings allowed the participants' to answer literal or fact question accurately but did not affect the accuracy if inference-based questions. (Freeland et al., 2000)

Definitions of Fiction and Non-Fiction

Fiction, also referred to as narrative text, is defined as text that depicts events, emotions, actions or experiences that individuals in a culture can relate to. Narrative text usually involves, characters with motives, a setting, a problem the main character faces, a plot that seeks to solve the problem, influences the readers emotions, and presents a moral or theme. Non-fiction is generally written to entertain and can contain information that is fictitious or factual. Narrative text is the most researched and understood text of the two. (Dickson, Kameenui, Simmons, 1993, ¶ 43 & 44)

Non-fiction, also referred to as expository text, is defined as text design to deliver information. Examples of non-fiction text would include magazine articles, textbooks, and essays. Expository text structure is more complex than the structure of narrative text and includes; classification, illustration, cause and effect, sequence, and enumeration. It has been suggested that the capacity for achievement in school is linked primarily to the ability to comprehend expository text. (Dickson, et al., ¶ 49&50)

Narratology

Narratology involves itself with both fictional and non-fictional narratives, though the primary focus is on fictional works. Narratology studies the structure of a story that is presented in a narrative. A narratologist desires to understand how the patterns and themes determine the makeup of a story. (Pradl 1984, ¶ 3)

Narratology also explores the comprehension value of text. Story telling has always been associated with understanding and knowledge. Narratologists contend, the words "narrative" and "story" can both be traced back to an original meaning of "to know." It is through the story that people quite literally come to know -- that is, to construct and maintain their knowledge of the world. Through a story, an individual creates meaning out of daily happenings, and this story, in turn, serves as the basis for anticipation of future events."(Pradl, ¶ 5)

International Reading and Literacy Study in Fiction and Non-fiction works

This particular report begins with international findings but quickly narrows to focus on American students in the fourth and ninth grade. Previous studies that compared nations showed that American children did poorly in comparison to other developed nations. However the standards for literacy used in this experiment are very different from the standards used by other organizations conducting the same type of experiment, so the outcome will be different. According to the IEA the definition of literacy is "the ability to understand and use those written language forms required by society and/or valued by the individual."(Comparing the Achievement of Nations and Students, 2)

This definition of literacy was applied to three separate forms of text; documentation, expository and narrative text. The study found that U.S. fourth graders comprehension of narrative text was second only to Finland's'. However, American fourth graders place third in the world in terms of comprehension of expository text.

American ninth graders are ranked equally with ninth graders from eleven other countries in comprehension of narrative text. Ninth graders placed sixteenth in the world in relation to comprehension of expository text. (Comparing the Achievement of Nations and Students, 10)

Strategies For Comprehending Fiction and Non-fiction Works

This section of the literary review will explore the differences between comprehension of fiction and non-fiction text. We will discuss strategies and interventions used to aid students in comprehending narrative and expository texts. Most of the literature that we will use to discuss this topic is from the Educational Resources Information Center Digest, also known as ERIC.

ERIC Digest Summary of comprehension of Fiction and Non-Fiction Text

This ERIC Digest summary explores the strategic processing of fiction and non- fiction text and discusses strategies to improve reading comprehension among children with learning disabilities. The summary asserts the following,

Generally speaking, narrative text (i.e., fiction) is easier to comprehend and remember than expository text (i.e., factual and informational material)."

According to the summary studies have concluded that fiction is easier to comprehend because it uses content that is more familiar to the reader than non-fiction does. In addition most people are able to use the structure of a story to comprehend the text. ERIC Digest explains, "Most research on narrative text has focused on teaching students to utilize story structure as an organizing framework for understanding critical aspects of the stories they read. Even preschool children use story structure to aid their comprehension. As they get older, children improve in their ability to use it."(Williams 2000)

ERIC Digest reports that one of the most effective ways of increasing reading comprehension among children with learning disabilities is through the use of narrative text. In one of the most successful studies ever conducted on this issue researchers found that teaching story grammar to children with learning disabilities improved reading comprehension. Story grammar is made up of the components that create a work of fiction such as the main character, the action and the outcome of the story. Teaching the children story grammar allowed them to identify story themes and think in an abstract manner. (Williams)

The summary asserts that all students, without or with learning disabilities, have a more difficult time comprehending expository or non-fiction text. This difficulty is due in part to the fact that non-fiction text usually focuses on unfamiliar text and concerns itself with more complex structures such as cause and effect and comparisons and contrasts. (Williams) The discussion of strategies to combat the complex structure of expository text among the learning disabled was a very important focus of the ERIC summary.

The Multipass strategy trains students to pass through the non-fiction text three times. ERIC describes the strategy saying,

The first pass involved students becoming familiar with main ideas and organization. The next pass included getting specific information from the text by reading questions at the end of each chapter and guessing at the answer, then reading the text to find the correct answers to the questions, and finally self-testing by answering each question with the newly acquired information." (Williams)

This strategy was made possible because teachers aided students through each step and they modeled the strategies and also gave students opportunities to practice. Other studies that have involved similar strategies have used peer tutors and have been successful. The digest asserts that this strategy of expository training can lead to better comprehension among students. (Williams)

Using Narratives to Teach Expository Subjects

It has been suggested that the use of narrative text can improve students' comprehension of expository text. An article in ERIC digest published in 1996 sought to uncover the benefits of using narrative texts, such as poetry, short stories, plays and folk tales instead of traditional textbooks, newspapers and reference books. This particular article discusses the use of narrative works to teach geography to high school students. (Hume 1996)

The article claims that there are two primary reasons why narrative works should be used when teaching high school students geography. The first rationale is that there is a natural connection of literature to geography. Supporters argue that most narratives have a setting that can be described in terms of geography. Supporters also contend that teaching geography through a narrative will allow children to appreciate the creative arts and geography more. (Hume 1996)

The second reason suggests that the study of literature improves the comprehension of geography. The article asserts that the best way for a child to learn geography is through travel and that the closest alternative to travel is narrative text. Advocates to this literature-based approach believe that students are more apt to understand geography is people and their experiences are used in the text. (Hume)

The article also discusses the idea that narrative text is usually more thought provoking and fun to read than expository text. Studies have found that students that participate in a literature-based program comprehend the information better and enjoy reading the material.(Hume)

ERIC digest warns that literary works intended to teach geography should be chosen carefully. The article recommends that the literary work that is chosen should be from a writer that has actually been to the places that are being discussed in the literature. This ensures that the depictions that are set forth in the narrative are accurate and not imaginary. One of the narratives' that is suggested in the article is "The Grapes of Wrath" which explores the geography of Oklahoma and California. Students can gain knowledge about the role of irrigation systems in the American economy and the conditions that led to the transition from small family farms to large commercial farms. (Hume)

The article in ERIC concludes that there can be several benefits that are realized when the literature-based approach is implemented. The most significant of these benefits is the increase in reading comprehension as compared with that of traditional expository textbooks. A secondary benefit is that the students actually enjoy reading and are more likely to complete reading assignments. (Hume)

Non-fiction Text Structure

The teaching of Expository text structure is a fairly new concept among teachers. However teachers are finding that this is a skill that their students need in order to comprehend the language in textbooks, newspapers and other texts based on factual information. Teachers find that this type of instruction is very important for students making the transition between elementary school and high school. Making sure that children get this instruction during this crucial time is important because prior to entrance into secondary school most students are not familiar with direct reading instruction that is prevalent in expository reading. Until middle school most students are only familiar with narrative forms of learning and instruction. (Coiro 2001)

The fact that reading expository text is unfamiliar to these students makes it difficult for them to comprehend the text, which makes it impossible for students to perform at an optimal level. The article says it best when it states, "To read informational materials effectively, students must become adept at detecting the relationships among the main ideas and their supporting details." (Coiro 2001)

Previous studies found that the organization of expository textbooks can greatly affect a student's ability to comprehend the information. In researching the structure of these books it was discovered that many of them are poorly written and failed to use precise language. The researchers found that this was particularly true among history books that did not make obvious the major concepts of history; provided no analysis of topics; trivialized the content; and did not aid students in comprehending the material as a whole. (Dickson, Kameenui, Simmons, 1993)

Researchers found that when students are taught text organization and text structure of non-fiction works they have greater comprehension.

This is because this type of instruction allows them to identify the main themes of the text and enables them to dissect the text structure so that they have a better understanding of the text. (Dickson et al.)

These findings make it apparent that academic success is extremely dependent upon the amount of expository text that a student can comprehend. Therefore it is of the utmost importance that students are taught the text structure of expository text.

Fiction Text Prompts Students to ask Questions

Stephanie Harvey of the Magazine Instructor asserts that non-fiction reading prompts children to ask questions related to the text, thus improving reading comprehension. Harvey, a teacher, found that narrative text such as picture books, short stories and mysteries encouraged her students to ask questions. This was particularly true of short stories that captured the attention of her students while teaching them valuable history lessons. Harvey encourages her students to ask questions and helps them to understand that asking questions leads to better reading comprehension and better grades. (Harvey 2001)