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THIS IS THE INSTRUCTIONS FOR THE RESEARCH CRITIQUE
NURS 225: RESEARCH
GUIDELINES FOR RESEARCH CRITIQUE

Directions for formatting the critique:
...> Number all pages; title page will be page number 1 [see APA manual for format of title page, use of running head with page number, and proper citation of a journal article and book; use 12 pt. font, no bold print with APA]. Do not include an abstract with this assignment.

For the body of this assignment you will not use a strict APA format. The form for the critique begins on page 2. Save this document as a Word file onto your desktop there is no need to re-type the form. Just type in your responses to each of the italicized bulleted questions/objectives. Your responses should be typed in regular font. Double-space your narrative response.

Use main headings [i.e., Introduction; Problem/Purpose, etc.], then respond to each of the bulleted questions/objectives. Type your responses in regular font.

Be sure to clearly explain answers, validate yes and no answers with at least a comment or two. Some of your narrative responses will be more detailed. Use proper grammar and proper sentence structure.

The critique, including title and reference pages, should be about 810 pages. Do not be overly concerned about the length of the paper; just be sure to clearly respond to each of the questions/objectives.

NOTE: Refer to the points on critiquing research studies that are detailed throughout the textbook. Although its not based on the guidelines above, you may find the example of an article critique helpful (see Module/Week 5 Additional Materials.

Points assigned to each component of critique are cited in parentheses [Total points possible: 225].

The form for the critique begins on page 2. Save this document as a word file onto your desktop then you may format as needed and type in your responses. Do not retype the form/information.















RESEARCH CRITQUE


Introduction (5)
Does title fit well with the content of the article?
Are the independent/dependent or variables of interest clearly defined?
Discuss the content of the abstract, is it a good overview of the content, is it consistent with content?

Problem/Purpose (10)
State the problem.
Do the authors identify the significance of the problem?
Do they provide adequate background information to support the problem?
Do the authors explain the purpose or aim of the study?

Literature Review (10)
Are relevant previous described?
Are the references current? (number of sources in the last 10 years and in the last 5 years)
Do the authors summarize their review of the literature to reveal what is known/not known and the need for further study?

Framework/Theoretical Perspective (10)
Is the study based on a specific theory or theoretical framework?
If the study is based on a specific theory, do the authors tie the framework/theory to their study concepts/variable of interest? If so, how is this accomplished?

List the Research Question(s) OR Hypotheses (10)
Research hypothesis or hypotheses
Research question(s)

Identify and Define Variables (10)
Independent variables [intervention/treatment], identify and define variable(s), - what is the treatment or intervention and how is it implemented?
Dependent variables [outcome of the treatment effect] define the dependent variable and describe how it is measured.
If the study does not have and independent and dependent variable, identify and define and the study variables of interest.

Demographics of Sample (5)
Were demographics of the sample included? If yes, provide a few examples of demographics, i.e. 50% male, 50% female, etc.







Research Design (15)
Identify the research design and define the design, i.e. nonexperimental, descriptive survey, correlational, etc.
Is the design used in the study the most appropriate design to obtain the needed data?
If an experimental study, identify the treatment or intervention
Were subjects assigned to groups? If so, how was this done?
Did the researchers conduct a pilot study? If so, what did they have to say about it did they make changes based on the pilot study?

Sample/Setting (15)
Sampling criteria this is usually referred to as inclusion criteria meaning what characteristics did participants need in order to be included in the study? i.e. female, 40-50 years of age, pregnant with 1st child, etc.
Sampling method, how did researchers obtain participants, what kind of approach was used nonprobability [nonrandom] or probability [random]?
Was informed consent obtained? Institutional Review Board mentioned?
Identify the setting of the study did the setting fit well with the studys objectives?

Measurement, Methods & Instruments (15)
Who developed the instruments used? The author, someone else?
Identify the type of measurement used in the study [Likert scale, physiological measure, etc.] and the level of measurement used [remember basic stats nominal, ordinal, interval, or ratio]
Discuss instrument development if applicable [some studies will use established instruments developed by other researchers/scientists if so note this]
Did the authors discuss the reliability and validity of the instruments used?

Data Collection (10)
How were data collected?
Timing of data collection [one time [cross-sectional] collection, longitudinal?]
Where were the data collected?

Data Analysis (10)
Are data analysis procedures clearly described? Explain
Are data analysis procedures appropriate for the type of data collected? Explain.

Statistical Analyses (15)
What statistical measures were used to test or report reliability and validity of the measurement methods [usually refers to the instruments used] in the study?
What statistical measures were used to analyze the data collected [the data that answered the research hypotheses or research questions]?
Was the level of significance or alpha identified? If so indicate what it was [.05; .01; or .001. remember .05 means that the researchers are 95% confident that there was cause and effect or correlation b/w variables, .01 means that they were 99% confident, and .001 means that the researchers were 99.9% confident that their intervention was effective and directly related to the outcome of effect.


Limitations (10)
What limitations were identified?
Can you identify any other limitations?

Implication of Findings (10)
What implications for nursing were described?
Can you think of any implications that were not described?
What were the suggestions for further study?

Generalization of Findings (5)
Did the author(s) generalize the findings [did they apply the findings of their study beyond the sample studied and make application to the population in general? Remember that a random [probability] sample is considered to be generalizable whereas a nonrandom [nonprobability] sample is not.

Format (5)
Did you discover any spelling, punctuation, or grammatical errors? What about sentence structure, organization, clarity?


Overall Evaluation (20)
Were the steps of the research process logically linked together [did the authors research questions or hypotheses make sense based on the review of literature, did the methods employed, i.e., quantitative/qualitative fit well with the intent of the study, etc.?
What are your impressions about the overall quality of the study?
Your impressions regarding applicability of the study nursing practice and how it contributes to nursing knowledge
Include any other points of critique or commentary as desired.



NOTE: Do not critique the article based on the information posted below; Quality of Work applies to the quality of your work on this critique assignment.

Quality of Work (20)
Thoroughness
Proper grammar and sentence structure
Clear communication of ideas
Depth of information
Organization, APA formatted citatio of reviewed article

THIS IS THE RESEARCH TO BE CRITIQUE

Health Policy & Systems
Factors Associated With Work Satisfaction of
Registered Nurses
Christine Kovner, Carol Brewer, Yow-Wu Wu, Ying Cheng, Miho Suzuki
Purpose: To examine the factors that influence the work satisfaction of a national sample of
registered nurses in metropolitan statistical areas (MSAs).
Design: A cross-sectional mailed survey design was used. The sample consisted of RNs randomly
selected from 40 MSAs in 29 states; 1,907 RNs responded (48%). The sample of
1,538 RNs working in nursing was used for analysis.
Methods: The questionnaire included measures of work attitudes and demographic characteristics.
The data were analyzed using ordinary least-squares regression.
Findings: More than 40% of the variance in satisfaction was explained by the various work
attitudes: supervisor support, work-group cohesion, variety of work, autonomy, organizational
constraint, promotional opportunities, work and family conflict, and distributive
justice. RNs who were White, self-perceived as healthy, and working in nursing education
were more satisfied. RNs that were more career oriented were more satisfied. Of the
benefits options, only paid time off was related to satisfaction.
Conclusions: Work-related factors were significantly related to RNs work satisfaction.
JOURNAL OF NURSING SCHOLARSHIP, 2006; 38:1, 71-79. C2006 SIGMA THETA TAU INTERNATIONAL.
[Key words: work satisfaction, nurses, work attitudes]
* * *
Nursing shortages have been widely reported in the
literature both regionally (Cushman, Ellenbecker,
Wilson, McNally, & Williams, 2001) and within
healthcare organizations (Buerhaus, Staiger, & Auerbach,
2003; Grumbach, Ash, Seago, Spetz, & Coffman, 2001).
Work satisfaction is an important issue for registered nurses
(RNs) and managers in part because of its reported relationship
with RN turnover (Davidson, Folcarelli, Crawford,
Duprat, & Clifford, 1997; Francis-Felsen et al., 1996;
Gurney, Mueller, & Price, 1997; Ingersoll, Olsan, Drew-
Cates, DeVinney, & Davies, 2002; Lake, 1998; Larrabee
et al., 2003; Prevosto, 2001; Shader, Broome, Broome,West,
& Nash, 2001, which can lead to organizational shortages
and absenteeism (Siu, 2002; Song, Daly, Rudy, Douglas, &
Dyer, 1997). Results from studies about determinants of RN
work satisfaction should be of interest to both administrators
and policy makers.
Background
A substantial body of literature exists about factors associated
with RN satisfaction with work (Stamps, 1997).
Various measures of satisfaction have been used, but many
are not based on a theoretical framework. Price (2004) and
Gurney et al. (1997) proposed an integrated theoretical
model of work satisfaction and voluntary turnover (intent
to leave) that combines economic, psychological, and sociological
theories with empirical findings about the determinants
of turnover. They theorized that a variety of
work-setting characteristics and attitudes toward work are
associated with satisfaction, resulting in intent to leave jobs.
Some empirical evidence for the model (Agho, Mueller, &
Price, 1993; Davidson, Folcarelli, Crawford, Duprat, &
Clifford, 1997; Gaerter, 1999; Gurney et al., 1997) has been
presented. A modification of Gurney et al.s model is shown
in the Figure.
Demographic characteristics have been associated with
RN work satisfaction (Blegen & Mueller, 1987; Ingersoll
Christine Kovner, RN, PhD, Upsilon, Professor, College of Nursing, New
York University, New York City; Carol Brewer, RN, PhD, Associate Professor,
School of Nursing; Yow-Wu Wu, PhD, Associate Professor, School
of Nursing; Ying Cheng, MA, Doctoral Candidate; all at University at Buffalo,
Buffalo, NY; Miho Suzuki, RN, MSN, Upsilon, Doctoral Candidate,
College of Nursing, New York University, New York City. This manuscript
was supported by the Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality, Grant
R01HS01132002. The authors of this article are responsible for its contents.
No statement in this article should be construed as an official position
of the Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality. Correspondence to Dr.
Kovner, College of Nursing, New York University, 246 Greene Street, Room
618E, New York, NY 10003. E-mail: ctk1@nyu.edu
Accepted for publication August 7, 2005.
Journal of Nursing Scholarship First Quarter 2006 71
RN Work Satisfaction
Job satisfaction
RN characteristics
Demographic
Health
Work setting
Social support and
integration to:
Work-to-family conflict
Family-to-work conflict
Job stress
Organizational constraints
Role overload
Promotional opportunities
Professional values
Autonomy
Routinization
Disposition and orientation
Work motivation
Career orientation
Direct patient care
Job hazards (injuries)
Pay (income, benefits)
Distributive justice
Movement constraints
MSA characteristics
Figure. Factors contributing to nurses job satisfaction. Based on Gurney, Mueller, & Price (1997). Adapted with permission.
et al., 2002; Langemo, Anderson, & Volden, 2002; Lum,
Kervin, Clark, Reid, & Sirola, 1998; Weisman, Alexander,
& Chase, 1980), and studies have indicated both a positive
relationship between autonomy and satisfaction (Acorn,
Ratner,&Crawford, 1997; Kramer&Schmalenberg, 2003)
as well as contradictory findings (Davidson et al., 1997;
Gurney et al., 1997; McNeese-Smith & Crook, 2003). The
relationship between variety and work satisfaction is equivocal
(Gurney et al., 1997; McNeese-Smith&Crook, 2003).
Findings are contradictory about the relationship between
distributive justice and work satisfaction (Gurney et al.,
1997; Taunton, Boyle, Woods, Hansen, & Bott, 1997),
workload, organizational constraint, and work satisfaction
(Adams&Bond, 2000; Davidson et al., 1997; Gurney et al.,
1997; Hoffman & Scott, 2003; Shaver & Lacey, 2003),
supervisor and mentor support, and satisfaction (Decker,
1997; Gurney et al., 1997; Larrabee et al., 2003; McNeese-
Smith & Crook, 2003).
Work-group cohesion, also termed integration, relationship
with coworkers, and peer support (Adams & Bond,
2000; Decker, 1997; Gurney et al., 1997; Larrabee et al.,
2003; Shader et al., 2001) and promotional opportunity
satisfaction (Gurney et al., 1997; Mills & Blaesing, 2000;
Taunton et al., 1997) have been related to work satisfaction.
Work-to-family conflict and family-to-work conflict are
related concepts that have been negatively related to work
outcomes, family outcomes, and employee physical and
mental health (Frone, 2003), but they were not included
in Price et al.s model. Family-to-work conflict (family conflicts
with work) has been positively related to job dissatisfaction,
work-related absenteeism, tardiness, and poor
job performance in various occupations (Bernas & Major,
2000; Frone, Russell, & Cooper, 1992; Frone, Yardley, &
Markel, 1997) and also among nurses (Decker, 1997). In
contrast, work-to-family conflict (work conflicts with family)
has been associated with intentions to quit ones job
and turnover (Greenhaus, Parasuraman, & Collins, 2001;
Kirchmeyer & Cohen, 1999).
Although not included in Price et al.s model, some
evidence exists that metropolitan statistical area (MSA)
characteristics affect nurses work participation behavior
(Buerhaus, 1993; Buerhaus & Staiger, 1996, 1997), but not
clear is whether these factors have any effect directly on
work satisfaction. For example, in areas with many inpatient
days, competition for RNs might be high. This competition
72 First Quarter 2006 Journal of Nursing Scholarship
RN Work Satisfaction
might force employers to improve working conditions,
which would improve RN work satisfaction. Similarly,
in areas with competition among healthcare providers, they
might compete in relation to quality or cost. If they compete
on quality, they might be satisfactory places to work. However,
if they compete on cost, they might be unsatisfactory
places to work. The purpose of the study reported here was
to empirically test the revised model shown in the Figure in
a national sample of woring RNs to determine the factors
associated with RNs work satisfaction.
Methods
The target population for this study was all registered
nurses (RNs) in metropolitan statistical areas (areas around
and including metropolitan areas) in the United States.
About 78% of RNs live in MSAs (Spratley, Johnson,
Sochalski, Fritz, & Spencer, 2001). The sampling design included
a two-stage sample of RNs in MSAs. First, MSAs
were selected; then RNs were randomly selected from all
RNs in each MSA. Because of financial constraints for this
study, only 40 MSAs were randomly selected from the original
51 MSAs used by the Center for Studying Health System
Change in the Community Tracking Study (CTS) in 2000
(Metcalf, Kemper, Kohn, & Pickreign, 1996). The original
sampling strategy for the CTS was designed to result in a
nationally representative sample of RNs. RNs were sampled
from 29 states and the District of Columbia (AL, AR,
AZ, CA, CO, CT, FL, GA, IL, IN, KY, LA, MA, MD, DC,
MI, MO, NC, NJ, NV, NY, OH, OK, PA, SC, TN, TX, VA,
WV, and WA). The board of nursing in each area was contacted
to get an updated list of names and addresses for all
RNs. From these lists, 4,000 RNs were randomly selected
from the 40 MSAs with equal probabilities of selection. An
advantage of this method is that the statistical analyses do
not require the use of sampling weights.
After the sample of 4,000 RNs was selected, each nurse
was sent a mailed questionnaire based on a seven-stage procedure
reported by Dillman (2000), including: (a) an alert
letter, (b) the first survey, (c) a postcard reminder, (d) a second
survey, (e) a third survey, (f) a follow-up phone call,
and (g) a fourth survey. Each selected RN received the first
survey with a $1.00 incentive and was eligible for one of
10 prizes of $100 in a drawing. These procedures resulted
in completed questionnaires being obtained from 1,906 of
the 4,000 sampled RNs. The overall response rate was 48%
and ranged across the 40 MSAs from 30% to 51%. Fortyfive
respondents were eliminated from the analytic sample
because they had moved to an area for which we could not
obtain MSA data, and 324 were eliminated because they
were not employed in nursing. Thus, the final sample was
1,538 nurses who were working in nursing.
Four types of variables were derived from the model: (a)
RNdemographic characteristics and health (age, sex, ethnicity,
race, marital status, highest degree in nursing, living with
children, years of experience in nursing, advanced certification,
partners income, overall health status, current enrollment
in an educational program, and religious beliefs), (b)
MSA characteristics (medical, surgical, and other specialists
per 1,000 population, primary care practitioners per 1,000
population, index of competition, percentage of HMO hospital
services paid through fee schedules, inpatient days, and
RN-to-population ratios, unemployment rate in 2002, and
MSA, and (c) RN perceptions of the labor market that represented
movement constraints (local job opportunity and
outside job opportunity). The fourth group was work setting,
which included work attitudes (autonomy, variety, distributive
justice, work group cohesion, supervisory support,
mentor support, work-family conflict, family-work conflict,
promotional opportunity, organizational constraints, quantitative
workload, work motivation, career orientation,
partners career orientation, and satisfaction) and characteristics
of the work (annual income, holding more than one
position for pay, work setting, position, work shift, transfer
of work unit, change in supervisor, needle sticks, strains and
back injury, paid time off benefit, medical insurance benefit,
retirement benefit, tuition reimbursement, importance of
benefits, and number of benefits). The full list of variables
is shown in Table 1.
Work attitudes were measured with scales used in previous
research (Carlson & Frone, 2003; Gurney, 1990; Quinn &
Staines, 1979; Spector & Jex, 1998). Satisfaction was measured
with the five-item Quinn and Stainess facet-free job
satisfaction scale (Quinn&Staines, 1979), but with slightly
altered response items.We expanded the number of options
in several cases, such as from the original three-response options
(strongly recommend, have doubts about recommending,
and advise the friend against) to four-response options
(strongly recommend, somewhat recommend, somewhat advise
against, and strongly advise against). The Cronbach
alpha coefficient was .86. Quinn and Staines reported that
these indicators of job satisfaction were correlated with less
role ambiguity (?.22), depressed mood at work (?.43), and
more facet-specific job satisfaction (.55), indicating evidence
of the validity of the scale (Cook, Hepworth, Wall, & Warr,
1981). All scales were Likert-type, varying in the number
of items from 3 (for work-family conflict) to 10 (for organizational
constraints). Table 1 shows the definition, mean,
standard deviation, actual range, Cronbach alphas, and the
number of items for all scales used in the analysis. Reliability
coefficients for the scales ranged from a low of .70 for variety
to .95 for supervisory support and distributive justice.
The one-factor structure of each scale using confirmatory
factor analysis was supported in all cases except organizational
constraint. After removing one item from that scale,
a one-factor solution was supported.
Partners annual income was logged to normalize the distribution.
As for group two characteristics, all variables related
toMSAexcept unemployment rate were obtained from
InterStudy (2001). Unemployment rate was obtained from
the Bureau of Labor Statistics. Primary care practitioners are
physicians who provide primary care such as family practice
physicians. Index of competition is how competitive the
HMO marketplace is.
Journal of Nursing Scholarship First Quarter 2006 73
RN Work Satisfaction
Table 1. Definition, Reliability, Number of Items, Mean, Standard Deviation, and Actual Range of Work Attitude Scales (N=1,538)
Definition Alpha Number of items Mean (SD) Actual range
Local job opportunity Likelihood of obtaining jobs in local area as good, worse, or better
than current jobb
.88 2 2.95 (1.21) 1.005.00
Outside job opportunity Likelihood of obtaining jobs outside local area as good, worse, or
better than current jobb
.90 2 3.09 (1.15) 1.005.00
Supervisory support Degree to which supervisor supports and encourages employeeb .95 5 3.59 (1.03) 1.005.00
Mentor support Degree of adequacy of access to an appropriate experienced
professional to sponsorship, protectorship and professional
benefactorshipb
.91 6 3.00 (0.88) 1.005.00
Work group cohesion Degree to which employees have friends in the immediate work
environmentb
.90 4 3.81 (0.83) 1.005.00
Variety Degree to which job performance is repetitiveb .77 4 3.03 (0.71) 1.005.00
Quantitative workload Amount of performance required in a jobc .89 5 4.13 (1.16) 1.006.00
Autonomy Degree to which employees control their job performanceb .79 4 4.09 (0.73) 1.505.00
Organizational constraint Degree to which situations or things interfere with employees job
performancec
.89 10 2.41 (0.92) 1.006.00
Promotional opportunities Degree to which career structures within an organization are
available to its employeesb
.90 5 2.87 (0.92) 1.005.00
Work-to-family conflict Degree to which an employees job interferes with family lifed .94 3 3.13 (1.40) 1.006.00
Family-to-work conflict Degree to which an employees family life interferes with jobd .89 3 1.73 (0.90) 1.006.00
Work motivation Degree to which work is central to an employees lifeb .83 4 2.08 (0.74) 1.005.00
Distributive justice Degree to which the an employees rewards are related to
performance inputs into the organization b
.95 4 2.60 (0.98) 1.005.00
Job satisfactiona Employees general affective reaction to the job without reference to
any specific job facete
.86 5 ?.012 (0.80) ?2.141.03
Note. aThe standardized score was used for job satisfaction because the numbr of items varied for each question. bGurney, Mueller, & Price (1997), c Spector & Jex (1998),
d Frone, Yardley, & Markel (1997), e Quinn & Stains (1979)
Findings
As shown inTable 2, working RNs were primarily women,
White, married, and only 14.2% had children under 6 years
old living with them. 19.1% had more than one position
for pay, 61% worked in hospitals, and a similar percentage
were in direct care positions. In addition to pay, the RNs had
a variety of noncompensation benefits: 85.2% had medical
insurance, 82.6% had retirement benefits, and 83.5% said
these benefits were somewhat to very important to them for
staying in the current position. At the same time 10.9% had
transferred to another work unit and 34.5% had a change in
the immediate supervisor in the last year. Table 3 shows that
the RNs had a mean age of 46.4, 18.8 years of experience,
and $49,940 annual income.
We used ordinary least squares (OLS) regression to estimate
the model, because the dependent variable was continuous
and we were testing a linear relationship. As shown in
Table 4, the model explains 54% of the variance in work
satisfaction, with most of the variation explained by the
work setting variables. Only the significant findings are included
in the table. No other variables were significantly
related to job satisfaction. Table 4 also shows the relationships
between the predictor variables and satisfaction.
Non-Hispanic Black RNs were less satisfied than were non-
Hispanic White RNs. RNs who were in poor or fair health
were less satisfied than were those with very good health,
but injuries did not influence satisfaction. Of the MSA characteristics,
only unemployment rate was significantly related
to satisfaction. Local job opportunity was related to satisfaction,
but nonlocal job opportunity was not. Of work setting
variables, the only benefit option related to satisfaction
was not having paid time off (e.g., vacation). RNs working
in nurse education were more satisfied than were those in
hospitals. Less career-oriented RNs were less satisfied than
were those who were more career oriented. RNs working as
managers or instructors were less satisfied than were RNs
providing direct care.
More than 40% of the variance in work satisfaction was
explained by the various attitude scales. High autonomy,
high distributive justice, high group cohesion, high promotional
opportunities, high supervisor support, high variety of
work, low work-to-family conflict, and low organizational
constraint, significantly contributed to satisfaction.
Discussion
Our sample is similar to the sample of working RNs from
the National Sample Survey of Registered Nurses (NSSRN;
74 First Quarter 2006 Journal of Nursing Scholarship
RN Work Satisfaction
Table 2. Demographic and Work-Related Characteristics of the Sample (N=1,538)
n (%)
Sex Female 1461 (95.0)
Male 77 (5.0)
Ethnicity Hispanic or Latino 38 (2.5)
Not Hispanic or Latino 1465 (97.5)
Race White 1306 (84.9)
Black 101 (6.6)
Asian 74 (4.8)
Other 57 (3.7)
Marital status Now married 1067 (69.5)
Unmarried 469 (30.5)
Live with children under age 6 Yes 219 (14.2)
No 1319 (85.8)
Live with children between age 6-11 Yes 269 (17.5)
No 1269 (82.5)
Live with children between age 12-17 Yes 415 (27.0)
No 1123 (73.0)
Live with children age over 18 Yes 480 (31.2)
No 1058 (68.8)
Overall health Poor or fair 137 (8.9)
Good 482 (31.5)
Very good 556 (36.3)
Excellent 356 (23.3)
Highest nursing degree Diploma 259 (17.1)
Associate 566 (37.3)
Baccalaureate 525 (34.6)
Masters/doctorate 167 (11.0)
Formal educational program Currently enrolled 129 (8.4)
Not currently enrolled 1409 (91.6)
Advanced certificate Yes 413 (26.9)
(National specialty or NP certification) No 1125 (73.1)
Nursing education in the US Yes 1448 (94.1)
No 90 (5.9)
Importance of religious beliefs Not at all/not very important 232 (15.3)
Moderately/very/extremely important 1283 (84.7)
MSA size Small (population <250,000) 181 (11.8)
Medium 402 (26.1)
Large (>1 million) 955 (62.1)
Position for pay More than one 293 (19.1)
Only one 1238 (80.9)
Work setting Hospital 938 (61.0)
Nursing home 86 (5.6)
Nursing education program 44 (2.9)
Home health care 126 (8.2)
Ambulatory care 218 (14.2)
Other 126 (8.2)
Position Manager 282 (18.9)
Consultant 26 (1.7)
Instructor 70 (4.7)
continued.
Journal of Nursing Scholarship First Quarter 2006 75
RN Work Satisfaction
Table 2. (continued)
n (%)
Direct care 943 (63.3)
Advanced practice nurse 100 (6.7)
Other 69 (4.6)
Work shift Day 890 (59.9)
Night 302 (20.3)
Other 295 (19.8)
Transfer of work unit Yes 167 (10.9)
No 1366 (89.1)
Change in supervisor Yes 529 (34.5)
No 1003 (65.5)
RNs career orientation Less than others 184 (12.0)
The same as others 755 (49.2)
More than others 594 (38.7)
Partners career orientation Less than others 132 (8.7)
The same as others 534 (35.4)
More than others 435 (28.8)
No partner 409 (27.1)
Needle sticks Never 1153 (75.0)
One time 284 (18.5)
More than one time 101 (6.6)
Strains/back injury Never 839 (54.6)
One time 311 (20.2)
More than one time 388 (25.2)
Paid time off benefit Have it and used it 552 (35.9)
Have it but not used it 778 (50.6)
Do not have it 208 (13.5)
Medical insurance benefit Have it and used it 277 (18.0)
Have it but not used it 1033 (67.2)
Do not have it 228 (14.8)
Retirement benefit Have it and used it 122 (7.9)
Have it but not used it 1149 (74.7)
Do not have it 267 (17.4)
Tuition reimbursement Have it and used it 129 (8.4)
Have it but not used it 922 (59.9)
Do not have it 487 (31.7)
Importance of benefits to stay in the position Not at all/Not very important 254 (16.5)
Somewhat/Very important 1284 (83.5)
aSample sizes smaller than 1,538 indicate missing data.
Spratley et al., 2001) with the samples respectively, male (5%
vs. 6%), White (85.0% vs. 85.3%), and married (69.5%
vs. 70.4%) RNs. Although the mean age of the workingin-
nursing RN sample from the NSSRN was not available,
our sample (M=46.4) is similar to the mean age of the total
sample of the NSSRN that was 45.2 (Spratley et al.,
2001).
One of the issues in a study such as the one described
here is how meaningful the potential changes in satisfaction
are. Although the relationships might be significant,
the cost or effort to make a change (such as increasing variety
and autonomy) might not be related to a meaningful
change in satisfaction. In this study satisfaction scores were
standardized so the mean is approximately zero. A score of 1
is one standard deviation above the mean. What proportion
of a standard deviation would be meaningful? If a one unit
change in supervisory support is related to a.081 change in
satisfaction, that is unlikely to be meaningful. On the other
hand a one-unit change in career orientation that results in
a .183 change might be meaningful.
Working as an RN is often physically and emotionally
demanding. RNs with poor or fair health might find this
76 First Quarter 2006 Journal of Nursing Scholarship
RN Work Satisfaction
Table 3. Means and Standard Deviations of Continuous
Demographic Variables and Metropolitan Statistical Area
Characteristics (N=1,538)
M SD
Age 46.4 (10.5)
Years of experience in nursing 18.8 (11.1)
RNs annual income $49,940 (19,903)
Log of partners annual income 7.98 (4.83)
Number of benefits 6.29 (2.61)
Medical, surgical, and other specialists 1.81 (0.65)
per 1000 population
Primary care practitioners per 1000 population 0.23 (0.08)
Index of competition 0.68 (0.21)
Percentage of HMO hospital services paid through 13.8 (11.0)
fee schedules
Unemployment rate in 2002 5.51 (0.97)
Inpatient days per 1000 population 0.98 (0.33)
RN size divided by corresponding MSA population 0.99 (0.25)
Note. Sample sizes for each variable may be smaller than 1,538 because of
missing values.
burden difficult, so that they are less satisfied than are RNs
with very good health. Why the non-Hispanic Black RNs
in our sample were less satisfied than were their White coworkers
is not clear, and Bush (1988) found race was not
related to satisfaction.
Regarding compensation, contrary to findings from some
other studies (Gurney et al., 1997; Ingersoll et al., 2002),
wages were not associated with satisfaction. However, dis-
Table 4. Ordinary Least Squares Regression Analysis of Significant Determinants of Job Satisfaction (N = 1,342)
Significant category for Unstandardized
Construct Variable (Reference Category) categorical variables coefficient R2 R2 change
Constant ?.971??
Demographic and Health Race/Ethnicity (Non-Hispanic White) Non-Hispanic Black ?.204?? .090 .090???
Overall health status (Very good) Poor or Fair ?.151?
MSA market Unemployment rate 2002 ?.040? .099 .009
Movement constraints Local job opportunity ?.042? .135 .035???
Work setting Supervisory support .081??? .541 .407???
Work-group cohesion .083??
Work setting (Hospital) Nursing education program .355?
Position (Direct care) Manager ?.113?
Instructor ?.283?
Variety .106???
Autonomy .106???
Organizational constraint ?.154???
Promotional opportunity .091???
Work family conflict ?.077???
Career orientation Less than others ?.219???
(Same as others) More than others .183???
Paid time off benefit Not have it .227??
(Have it but not used it)
Distributive justice .087???
?p <.05, ??p <.01, ???p <.001.
tributive justice, which pertains to the fairness of pay, was
related to satisfaction. Interestingly, the only benefit associated
with satisfaction was paid time off. Possibly these other
benefits could directly affect turnover while not having an
effect on satisfaction.
Working shifts other than the day shift and shift length
were not related to satisfaction, consistent with findings
from other studies (Hoffman & Scott, 2003). The RNs
quantitative workload was not related to satisfaction. RNs
who perceived that they had high workloads were no more
or less satisfied than were those who perceived that they had
low workloads. This finding is contrary to some findings
(Davidson et al., 1997; Gaerter, 1999; Hoffman & Scott,
2003; Sheward & Hagen, 2005), and others have found
no relationship between workload and satisfaction (Gurney
et al., 1997; Shaver & Lacey, 2003). These contradictory
findings might be related to the samples or to instrument
used to measure satisfaction. None of these studies included
the measure of satisfaction used in our study. The study reported
here had a nationally representative sample, which
none of the above studies had. The difference might be related
to the perceived fairness (distributive justice) of the
workload rather than the actual workload. If everyone is
working hard, that might not affect satisfaction. However,
if some people have higher workloads or fewer days off,
the lack of justice could lead to dissatisfaction. Although
much has been written about the need for RNs to have support
from mentors (Prevosto, 2001), this variable was not
related to satisfaction in our sample. Supervisory support,
however, was related to RN work satisfaction, as was work
group cohesion, and both of these conditions might indicate
Journal of Nursing Scholarship First Quarter 2006 77
RN Work Satisfaction
support aspects of mentoring. These work setting factors
can be influenced by employers.
Conflicts between work and family have been reported to
be related to work satisfaction. We defined two concepts:
work-to-family conflict (work interferes with family) and
family-to-work conflict (family interferes with work). When
work interfered with family, the RN work satisfaction was
lower; however, when family interfered with work no relationship
to work satisfaction was found. Work-to-family
conflict was related to satisfaction in nonnursing samples
as well. Organizational and personal initiatives to reduce
work-to-family conflict would be particularly appropriate
targets to address (Frone, 2003).
Conclusions
The study reported here included a national random sample
of RNs in a variety of nursing positions and healthcare
organizations, unlike many other studies of work satisfaction
that were focused on only staff nurses in hospitals
(Adams & Bond, 2000). However, only the educational
work setting influenced satisfaction. Thus, differences in our
sample from studies focused on RNs in hospitals might account
for some differences in findings. On the other hand,
our model explained 54% of the variance inRNsatisfaction.
Thus, the model we tested, which included many variables
not analyzed in other studies, might account for some differences
from previously published studies.
Of particular interest to managers is what factors are mutable
by management or governmental policy in such a way
that they increase satisfaction. Considering the need to recruit
and retain minority nurses, managers should be particularly
sensitive to the concerns of non-Hispanic Black nurses
to determine how to increase their satisfaction. Organizational
characteristics such as paid time off, autonomy, variety,
distributive justice, supervisory support, promotional
opportunity, and organizational constraints are factors over
which organizations have a great deal of control. Interestingly
and contrary to economic literature, the amount of
wage was not significant but the fairness of the wage was
important, and this perception can be modified by employers.
Having paid time off as a benefit is a way employers
could reduce work-to-family conflict; e.g., flexibility in work
schedules might be an important factor in work satisfaction.
Work-to-family conflict and group cohesion might be improved
if organizations provide work environments that are
family friendly, with supervisors trained to foster activities
in work units that increase group cohesion. Improving those
organizational characteristics should lead to increased RN
satisfaction with work.
Future research should include studies with large enough
sample sizes to assess whether factors associated with satisfaction
vary by subgroup such as new graduates in the 1st
year of practice. Some measures that have been reported to
be related to satisfaction, such as communication with physicians
were not included in this study and should be included
in future research. This study was focused on individuals,
not organizations, and it included little information about
the organizations in which the RNs worked. We did not assess
organizational size or other characteristics, nor did we
include data about the dynamics of the work setting, such
as how care was organized.
Understanding satisfaction is important because it has
been linked inversely to turnover. Findings from this and
other studies indicate that organizations can do much to
increase RN satisfaction with work.
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Journal of Nursing Scholarship First Quarter 2006 79  more

***A sample project has been emailed as a resource (please make it look similiar***
For the purpose of this portfolio project, you will play the role of an HR Specialist. In this role, you will d...esign a selection process for a specific job. The outcome of the portfolio project will be a proposal, which details the design of the selection process you are recommending for a
specific job. You can choose a job in your current organization, your current job, or a job that you have held in the recent past. Regardless of the job you choose, you will need access to a Subject Matter Expert (not you) so you can conduct a job analysis. If you do not have access to an organization (and consequently an SME), you can maker one up; In order to design a selection process, you will apply the knowledge gained, Specifically, you will:

1) Conduct a job analysis utilizing one or more of the following methods: interview, questionnaire, observation. In all instances, you will need access to a subject matter expert (SME) which can be a job incumbent, a supervisor, or another individual who has detailed knowledge about the job.

2) Create a job description, using the form provided, or designing your own.

3) Design three selection assessments, which include:
a) Screening interview questions
b) Behavioral interview questions for a face to face interview (either one on one or group)
c) One job-related simulation or performance-based test

4) For each of the three selection assessments, develop assessment criteria for making decisions to move job applicants forward in the process (or not) and ultimately hiring the candidate.

5) Create a Selection Process Flow Chart indicating the sequential steps involved in the process.

6) Create a proposal for your Selection Process, following the Sample Selection Process document provided. The proposal is intended for the organization for which you created the selection process (this is your audience). The proposal MUST include: a) the job analysis, b)
job description, c) selection assessments and criteria, and d) a flow chart of steps involved in the selection process.
There are faxes for this order.  more

RESEARCH METHODS IN CRIMINAL JUSTICE COURSE
12FONT DOUBLE SPACE TIME ROMAN,TITLE PAGE DOES NOT COUNT,TABLE OF ONTENTS SHOULD BE INCLUDED IN PROJECT NUMERATION

STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
... Give a brief summary of your problem.Explain what you are trying to ascertain.Give background of what previous researchers have concluded.Your statement of your problem should not be longer than a paragraph.

Introduction:General Background,Specific Background,and Significance of the study.


Specific research Question(s)

LITERAYURE REVIEW
(Note: Discuss the major contributors to your general topic of interest.Secondly discuss literature that is uniquely relevant to the study.Literature reviews are not very different from what you might find from what you might call a short term paper.Read available literature on a topic; analyze the findings,organize the findings in a logical manner,write a summary.You should include some of the following points in you review.What research has been previously done?Are the findings consistent?What are the flaws or limitation of the existening research?How will your research contibute to the existing body of literature?The number of references varies,however anywhere from 10 to 20 sources are common.It is not necessary to discuss each article in great detail.Focus on major articles;focus on those studies that relate to your specific topic of interest,your theory of interest,and/or methodology of interest 4-5 pages

Hypotheses/Variables(Research Questions/Definitions of Terms)
Hypothesses or research question
Definitions of Terms
Variables:Dependent variable and Independent variable

State your hypotheses or research questions.What are the key variables in your study?How will you define and measure them?Do your definitions and measurement methods duplicate or differ from previous studies?It is okay if your research duplicate other measurements(MINIMUM OF ONE PAGE)

METHODS AND PRCEDURES
RESEARCH DESIGN

Example research question---Do HBCUs have higher retention rates for african americans than non HBCUs?
Example research hypothesis---HBCUs have higher retention rates for their AFRICAN American students than non-HBCUs



INSTRUMENTATION-A Survey instrument collects data may be any type of orginal or published test,survey,(QUESTIONAIRES)INTRODUCTION SHEET DISTRIBUTED TO PARTICIPANTS,Include selection criteria for the instrument.Remember that it is not uncommon for instruments be considered in terms of their validity.Do they measure what they are supposed to measure?Reliability is another concern.Reliability measures may be present by certain statistical procedures such as correlation coefficents.Still, other common reliability assessment techniques are discussed in your text

SAMPLING-Here is the opportunity yo discuss how the projects of your study are to be selected.If your study requires a sample, your first task is to determine the group to be sampled.Sampling techniques are quite varied.Common sampling methods include random sampling,stratified sampling,cluster sampling,and several others.Selecting the optimal sampling method requires that you consider population diversity and other research issues.The question of"How large the sample? is a challenging question.Unfortunately there is not easy answer.
Minimum of 30 plus subjects per group strata

ANALYSIS-Indicate what kind of analysis you plan to conduct.What is the purpose and logic of your analysis?What statistical processes and procedures will be applied throughout the study?State the reason for selecting a certain procedure.

BRIEFLY Discuss the limitations of the study and make recmmendations and suggestions regarding how future studies may expand or improve upon existing studies.All studies have limitations.Be open and honest when discussing limitations.

REFERENCES
CITE ALL REFERENCES USED IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF THIS RESEARCH REPORT/Recommendations of THE AMERICAN ASSOCIATION(ASA)MANUAL IS HELP FOR THIS COURSE


REFEERNCES ENTRIES MUST BE BE FROM SCHOLARLY JOURNALS, BOOKS AND GOVERNMENT DOCUMENTS.ARTICLES FROM NEWSPAPERS AND MAGAZINES WILL NOT BE ACCEPTED.ALL OF THE REFERENCES MUST BE ORGANIZED INTO A BIBLIOGRAPHY AT THE END OF THE PROJECT.

whenever you use someones work, you must properly cite the work within the text(authors last names and year)

Example: note the underline phrases.According to (ALVIN POSSAINT(1986),black female- headed households are the most prevalent in the black community today

THE Bibliography should be in the American Sociological Associations (ASA) format

Example
(BOOK)
Herod,Augustinia and Charles C.Herod.1986. afro-american nationalism.new york:Garland Publishing

Example
(JOURNAL ARTICLE)
Simons,ronaldl.phyllis gray.1989"Percieved blocked opportunity as a causes of deliquency among black, lower-class youth."Journal of research in crime and Delinquency 26(1):90-101

Example
Deon Brock,Nigel Cohen,Jonathan sorensen.American Journal of Criminal Law.Austin:Fall200,Vol 28, Iss 1;pg.43,29 pgs

Examples
JOURNALS(A Partial listing)
-Criminology
-Journal of Criminology and Criminal Law
-Justice quarterly
-Crime and delinquency
-Journal of Quanitative Criminology
-Police and society
-Criminal justice and behavior

FINAL ORDER OF DOCUMENTS
1-TOPIC/RESEARCH QUESTION
2-STATEMENT OF PROBLEM
3-INDEPENDENT AND DEPENDENT VARIABLES
4-HYPOTHESIS
5-INTRODUCTION
6-REVIEW OF LITERATURE&THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVE
7-DEFINITIONS
8-METHODS(PARTICIPANTS IN RESEARCH, PROCEDURE, INSTURUMENTS AND SAMPLE)
9-SURVEY/QUESTIONAIRES(30-35 QUESTIONS)-MUST HAVE DIRECTIONS
10-CONSENT FORM(THIS IS A FORM THAT IS GIVEN TO PARTCIPANTS BEFORE QUESTIONAIRE IS GIVEN)
11-ANALYSIS AND RESULTS(INCLUDE SURVEYS/QUESTIONAIRES RESULTS)
12-ANALYSIS OF DATA(FINDINGS)
13-CONCLUSION(RECOMMENDATIONS)
14-REFERENCE LIST

TOPIC FOR RESEARCH PAPER-DO AFRICAN AMERICAN WOMEN RECIEVE HARSHER SENTENCING IN THE CRIMINAL JUSTICE SYSTEM FOR CRIMES

PERSONAL VIEWS-
I PERSONALLY BELIEVE AFRICAN AMERICAN WOMEN VERSES ANY OTHER RACIAL GROUP RECIEVE HARSHER SENTENCING IN THE CRIMINAL JUSTICE SYSTEM WITHOUT GIVEN OTHER OPPORTUNITES AND FOR THAT INDIVIDUAL I AM VERY DISAPPOINTED IN THE CRIMINAL JUSTICE FOR OVER LOOKING A GROUP OF WOMEN THAT TO BE PUNISHED SINCE THE BEGINNING OF TIME AND DUE TO MY PERSONAL EXPERIENCES OF DEALING WITH THE CRIMINAL JUSTICE SYSTEM WHEN I HAVE PERSONALLY SEEKED JUSTICE FOR FOR MYSELF AND JUSTICE WAS NEVER BEEN SERVED TO THE VICTIMS THAT ARE AFRICAN AMERICAN I PERSONALLY FEEL OVER LOOKED AS WELL AND I AM DEALING WITH LEGAL ISSUES ON GOING THAT COULD AFFECT MY LIVELY HOOD AT THIS PRESENT TIME AND AS A CRIMINAL JUSTICE SENIOR STUDENT AND A AFRICAN AMERICAN SINGLE MOTHER WITH A 3.3 GPA I PERSONALLY FELL VICTIM TO FEMALE STALKER THAT HAS STALKED FOR A YEAR ME AT NAIL SHOPS,CLUB AND HAS CYBER STALK ME AS WELL AND BUST OUT WINDOWS TO MY CAR AND I HAVE BEEN PHYSCIALLY ASSAULT WITH A WATER BOTTLE BEING THROWED AT ME AND SHE CALLED DCF REPORTING FALSE ALLEGATIONS TO TRY TO GET MY 2YEAR DAUGHTER OLD REMOVE FROM MY HOME, THE REASON I FEEL THE CRIMINAL JUSTICE SYSTEM FAILED IS BECAUSE WHEN I FOLLOWED THE DIRECTIONS OF LOCAL POLICE OFFICERS TO PURSUE A INJUCTION AFTER 5 POLICE REPORTS(RESTRAINING ORDER)I WENT TO COURT THINKING I WAS FINALLY GOING TO HAVE TO PROBLEM RESOLVED BUT IN REALITY BECAUSE THE JUDGE HAD FAVORISTISM AT THE BEGINNING THIS YOUNG LADY WAS ALLOWED TO PLACE RESTRAING ORDER AGAINST ME WHICH WILL AFFECT MY CHANCE OF GETTING EMPLOYMENT AFTER I GRADUATE THIS MAY I FEEL SO DISCOURAGED AFTER ALL MY HARD WORK AND DEALING WITH SO MANY OBSSTACLES ONLY TO BE SLAPPED IN THE FACE WITH A JUDGE CAN DISREGARD FACTS OUT OF SPITE,AND THE JUDGE DISREGARDED MY 3 WITNESS AND MY LAWYER AND THE JUDGE GRANTED THE STALKER THE UPPER HAND I FEEL AS IF I FELL THROUGH THE CRACKS DEALING WITH CRIMINAL JUSTICE SYSTEM IS SO BACKWARDS/-I JUST WANTED THE WRITER TO BE ABLE TO ADD A PERSONAL TOUCH
MY NAME IS LATASHA TANNER  more

The paper being written will be an Action Research paper. Which means the paper is based on things I am testing and collectiong data about technology being used in my classroom. Some forms of techno...logy that may possibly be included are the use of a SMARTBoard, computers (brainpop.com, sratfall.com, unitedstreaming.com), Powerpoint based lessons, and devices such as a listening center, DVD player, etc..

Listed below are the requirements for the paper as supplied by my university. All examples given in the text below are from the university and are not pertinent to my paper

CHAPTER 1
Introduction:
The first chapter provides the overview of the project. You may use personal pronouns in your writing, since you are describing your own classroom and teaching practice. . The important of the problem or issue would be noted and a rationale for why you have chosen to undertake the study. Remember, this is an introduction it sets the stage for the next sections, so you would also briefly outline the following sections of this chapter.

Background and statement of the problem:
This purpose of this section is to provide a discussion of how the problem has been dealt with in the past. This section presents the big picture and provides the context of previous studies and relates to the present research.You may want to include in this section:
The issues and problem(s) from a school and/or district perspective (i.e., statistics, literature and research).
Describe the issues and problem(s) from your classroom (or program) perspective (i.e., statistics, literature and research)
If appropriate, provide literature describing the lack of relevant research
Provides historical perspective leading to the present concerning the problem

Purpose and research questions:
Based on the rational and perspectives you described above, outline the purpose of your study, using the research you cited above to support your statement. You will state specifically the purpose of your study, or what you will discover, describe, examine, investigate, etc. State your research question in terms of a what, how or why format.

Context of the action research study/project:
Typically an action research project has significance for your own teaching practice or immediate educational environment. Describe the context in which you will implement the study. Include information about the following:
Community
District and school
Classroom
gender
grade
specific needs of students (disabilities, second language learners, gifted, etc.)
content area, subjects or behavioral focus
levels
other significant information
Audience (if a guidebook, curriculum, staff development, policy paper)

Definition of terms:
Define major variables, concepts or terms that are specific to this study or are new or novel to the reader. Define important terms that may have multiple definitions and need to be clarified. If needed, please provide citations. Introduce the words that will be defined, i.e. For purposes of this study, the following words are defined:

IEPs. (Use level 4 heading for each term defined).
Write the definition in complete sentences.

Summary
Provide a brief summary of this chapter and be sure in the summary to link to the literature review in Chapter 2.

CHAPTER 2
Review of the Literature:
Review relevant literature as appropriate for the project. This should provide an interpretative summary of the topic. The purpose of the literature review is to provide a summary of current research developments on your topic. Research that is evidenced based and peer reviewed should be examined for this review. A good review critiques the research studies and show how the findings relate to the problem under study. This chapter provides the link between existing knowledge and the problem being studied. Use your purpose to focus your reading and literature search.

The introduction is untitled. Provide a reorientation to the purpose of the study and refer to the topics to be covered in the chapter. The order of topics is from the global view to the specific. Generally one paragraph is sufficient. In the introduction, briefly re-state the rationale for your study.

Based on the literature you have gathered, identify the three or so big ideas or concepts/ideas related to your topic that you will review. Describe the relationships between these ideas. Each of the big ideas you have identified in the literature will become a heading or section of the review. These section are centered with capital letters. For example:
Behavior Modification

Describe each main idea and explain the importance of this idea or concept. Introduce the sub ideas that relate to the main idea. For example, your first big idea may be behavior modification as an overall approach to working with students with disabilities. Sub topics might include instructional approaches, behavior change strategies, and cognitive behavior therapy. Or you may want to start with a historical overview of services for students with specific learning disabilities or autism. Your sub ideas would be related kinds of interventions used with these students during different time periods.

You would summarize the research related to the main idea then describe important studies related to that idea.

Sub Idea for First Big Idea:
Following the description and discussion of the research for the first big idea,
transition to the sub ideas and follow the same pattern. First describe the sub idea, how it relates to the big idea and its relationship to the other sub ideas. Discuss the research and related literature. End with a summary of this section, and provide a transition to the next sub idea.

Continue the process describe above until you have discussed the big ideas and related sub ideas that you discovered in your literature search. Be sure to provide brief summaries of what was discussed in each section.


Conceptual Holes, Problems and Needs:
In this section, describe any conceptual holes you may have found in the literature, if any. You may not have found specific research related to your topic. For example, you may have found research about teaching math to middle school students, but no specific studies related to your classroom population. In this section you may note problems with the research you found (a number of poorly completed studies), or you may note the need for studies in the area you of your own research.


Implications for Practice:
In this section of the review you will discuss the implications for educational practice raised by the literature you have reviewed. Given what the research says, what does this mean for your program, for other teachers, or the school, etc. Specifically, you need to focus this section on ---what aspects of the literature review have influenced you to pursue the project proposed in Chapter 3? Use the literature reviewed in Chapter 2 as a rationale for your project in Chapter 3.


Implications for Inquiry:
What implications for future research can you draw from the literature you have reviewed? In other words, based on the research reviewed, what additional kinds of studies should be completed? This is where your own research fits in to the discussion. Educators often choose to complete an action research study on a classroom practice they are using, because there is very little information available about that practice. You can also discuss the kinds of research that would add to the growing body of literature on a topic

Rationale for Action Research Question and Study Design:
This section is where you connect your research question(s) and study design (action research) to the literature reviewed. Briefly describe why your question fits into the literature, what your study may add to the knowledge base and how your design will help you answer your question.

CHAPTER 3
Research Design:
This section of the proposal begins with an introduction that is not subtitled. This gives the reader direction for the content covered in this chapter. Genrally one paragraph is sufficient. This chapter is written in future tense for the proposal and past tense for the final project and is a step-by-step guide for the research. The design for the research is directly connected to the purpose and research questions asked in Chapter 1.

You might start the chapter The purpose of Chapter 3 is to describe the action research design and procedures that will be used to answer the research question(s) presented in Chapter I: (repeat the question exactly as stated in Chapter 1).

Action Research Plan:
?Summarize the key findings from the Review of Literature (Chapter 2) that provide support and a rationale for your inquiry and action research question.
?Describe the action strategy or intervention to be implemented and studied. Connect this to the research as well
?Describe the rationale for the intervention/action strategy. Why did you select this particular intervention?
Remember to protect the privacy of your participants (students, parents or teachers), by either assigning them pseudonym, letter or number.

Data Gathering Methods and Procedures:
Describe the methods used to gather information about the effects of your intervention. You will need to use multiple methods in order to provide triangulation for your data. The multiple data sources will add validity to your findings. Talk about the different measures and sources of information. Chapter 3 and 4 of the Mills text contains many examples of ways to gather data. Some examples include: interview or survey;
teachers journal or anecdotal notes/field notes; systematic observations of student behavior; document analysis; assessments or performance measure.

Describe in detail how you will implement each of the data collection methods, including a timeline and process for ensuring consistency and reliability in your data collection procedures. Include an alignment chart to illustrate the design integrity of your study. The alignment chart or matrix can be included in the body of your paper or as an appendix. It is often helpful to create this chart and then use it to describe in detail your procedures. The IRB committee wants to see what kind of data you plan to collect and how you plan to gather those data.

Ethical Considerations:
Discuss ethical considerations and the review process that should be followed. Discuss risk/benefit ratio and identify steps to minimize any risks. Include a letter to your school administrator describing your study and requesting permission to complete the study. Place cover letter and/or consent forms in appendix.

Data Analysis:
Describe the plan for data analysis. How will demographic data be analyzed? How will you analyze the data you have gathered in terms of procedures (percentages, identifying themes and patterns, tabulating totals, etc). How will the data be used to answer the study question(s)? Outline how you plan to compile the information in order to discuss the results (which you will do in Chapter 4).
Summary

Provide a brief (one paragraph) summary of this chapter. Use the section headings to briefly review what you will be doing in your study.

CHAPTER 4
Data Analysis and Discussion:
An introductory paragraph starts this chapter. Briefly restate the purpose of your action research project. Briefly describe how you gathered your date. This chapter is written in past tense, since you have already collected your data.

Findings:
This is a presentation of the results of the data you have gathered. You may organize this by the kinds of data collected and how each is related to the research question. Data presentation should be factual and tables or charts are utilized to illustrate information when appropriate. Tables, charts and graphs should be placed as close to the narrative as possible rather than at the end. (Refer to APA Manual and Appendix C in the Mills text for examples of how to display your data).
Sub sections

Use sub headings in the Findings sections to organize your results. Organize findings in relation to each research question, or parts of the question. Discuss the analysis process you used for each of the data collection methods and describe the results for each method.

Discussion:
This section includes a discussion of the major findings. The discussion often relates what you have found to what others have found in similar research. Organize this discussion to follow the findings describe in the about section.

Limitations:
Limitations are the weaknesses that impact the results of the study. Describe the limitations that exist due to factors that you could not control that impacted the study. These are compromises to the goodness of the data collected. Some examples might be the small sample size, or other factors that affected your study and the results (poor attendance, interruptions in the action research plan, etc.).


CHAPTER 5
Summary and Conclusion:
Start with an introductory paragraph, again briefly stating the purpose of your study and how it was conducted. This chapter has three main sections, conclusions, implications for teaching and implications for future research and is written in past tense, since your research has been completed.

Conclusions:
What are the conclusions of your study? How were the research questions answered? What was learned about the intervention or about the participants? Discuss the general, overall conclusions and summarize the related evidence

Implications for Teaching Practice:
In this section discuss the implications of your study as they relate to your own teaching practice. Use the conclusions from above to personalize the results and talk about how the study has impacted you as a teacher. What will you change or do differently? What did you learn about self as a teacher, student learning, teaching practices and/or other related professional issues? Finally, describe how your findings may have implications for others in the field?

Implications for Further Research:
Identify the implications for further research. . Outline how you might want to either continue the study along with considerations for the next inquiry question, data gathering methods and data sources. Based upon what you found in your study (conclusions) what needs to be studied in the future? Research is a cycle, so what are the next logical questions to come out of this research for you, and for others to pursue?

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The Theory of Scholarship of Distance Education
Everything that is recorde...d in the literature of the field is the theory of the field. Somebody so later organizes and summarizes the body of knowledge, or parts of it, and as these summaries are found useful by more and more scholars and researchers they become authoritative. Then, instead of reviewing all the literature yourself you can refer to the summary. It is like a map. A map summarizes what is known about a place and if there are many inky spaces it shows them. This is the clue to knowing where new exploration i.e. research, is needed. The accepted facts and concepts that make up theory also provide a shared perspective for those who have studied it and a common vocabulary for discussing, analyzing, or criticizing it. People who go on journeys of discovery who have not read the theory -- either exhaustively in its long form-the literature or and in its summer rise forms-are traveling without a map. In research they asked questions that have been answered or in bed are unanswerable and because they do not understand vocabulary they are confused and they cause a great deal of confusion. In education a lot of the information about technology that is collected and reported as distance education is not really about distance education at all and is rather trivial in significance while questions that do need to be researched is often overlooked. Knowing the theory, then, is very valuable for everyone who wants to practice and distance education for research it is indispensable.
A Very History Short of Scholarship
scholarship can be defined as research grounded in theory. It should be surprising -- and but it is a fact -- that while whole departments of professors and hundreds of colleges of education have for decades studied teaching and learning and how these organized inside the campuses and classrooms of schools, universities, and training organizations, what goes on when communication technologies extended teaching and outside the classroom and campus has been ignored by nearly all of them. What a research was done in this area was until recently undertaken by people who are engaged in the practice of teaching at a distance and took it on themselves to attempt some analysis of and reflection on what they were doing. Even when they produce research reports they had difficulty in sharing them since the editors of the journals of education had little interest in publishing what they were writing about. Probably the person to suggest there was a need for research and distance education was in J.S. Noffsinger 1926, first director of the national home-study Council who went on to produce the first systematic description of American correspondence education. This was followed a few years later by another landmark survey by Bittner and Mallory published in their University teaching by mail 1933. In 1956 a major survey was undertaken by the national University extension Association gathering information from 34 institutions and 69,519 distance learners. In 1960 and other national survey was undertaken jointly by the national University extension Association and the national home study Council and was disseminated in the correspondence instruction in the US (Mackenzie, Christiansen, and Rigby, 1968). The Brandenburg Memorial assay a collection of contributions from the leading thinkers and practitioners of the years following World War II edited by Charles Wedemeyer appeared in two volumes 1963 and 1966. Among the few outlets for publications were the newsletters of the national University extension Association and the national home study Council and the newsletter of the ICCE, which Wedemeyer started in 1971. Matters improve went to foreign journals entered circulation: distance education (an in-house organ of the UK open University) and Epistolodidktica, a journal published by the European home study Council. However these were hard to obtain in the US and the editorial policies meant they were unlikely to publish a American research. In the 1980s as interest in using telecommunications for distance education become of considerable interest a growing number of to begin to engage in research. They received a significant stimulus in 1986 with the establishment of the American Center for study of distance education and the founding of the American Journal of distance education, one of the most significant events affecting University independent study in the past 15 years. Providing a foundation for scholarship alongside the American Journal of distance education was a unique event that occurred in 1986. That was the first American symposium of research in distance education. This was an invitational meeting of 50 American academics who has shown an interest in research in distance education convene specifically by the American Center for study of distance education to review and discuss a research agenda. For the symposium came a book, the first moon scholarly collection on American distance education. A similar key been opened in the 1990s when an international workshop was held in Caracas, Venezuela under the auspices of the American Center for study of distance education bringing American researchers to meet with other researchers from all five continents for the purpose of formulating a global research agenda. In 1991 the history of the field was recorded in a book sponsored by independent study division of the nationally University continuing education Association, the foundations of American distance education. The first formal courses of instruction began in the early 1970s when Charles Wedemeyer began his graduate seminar and independent study offered in the adult education program at the University of Wisconsin Madison. His research assistant and this was Michael G. Moore who took over teaching the seminar on Wedemeyer retirement in 1976 and continued teaching it each year as a special summer course until 1986. After moving in that year to the Pennsylvania State University more instituted his own program of graduate courses. By 1987 Holmberg was able to list a number of universities where distance education was being taught and felt able to assert that it is evident that a research discipline of distance education has emerged.

History of Theory of Distance Education
In the summer of 1972 Michael G. Moore made a presentation to the world conference of the international Council for correspondence education meeting in Warrenton, Virginia on the topic of learner autonomy: the second dimension of independent learning. It began as follows: we started my posture lading that the universe of in shock consisted of two families of teaching behaviors, which we referred to as contiguous teaching and distance teaching. After describing conventional or contiguous teaching Michael G. Moore defined distance teaching as; the family of instructional methods in which the teaching behaviors are executors apart from the learning behaviors, including those that in contiguous teaching would be performed in the learners presence, so that communication between the learner and the teacher must be facilitated by print, electronic, mechanical, or other devices.
This was the first attempt in America to define distance education and it went on to propose a general theory of the pedagogy of distance education. For two years while working with Wedemeyer, Michael Moore had study educational theory and noticed what had not been noticed before; that there were no systematic theory to account for education in which the teaching behaviors are executed apart from the learning behaviors. He explained to the international Council for correspondence education conference in 1973: as we continue to develop various nontraditional methods of reaching the growing number of people who cannot or will not attend conventional institutions but who choose to learn apart from their teachers we should direct some of our research to the macro-factos; describing and defining the field, discriminating between the various components of this field; identifying the critical elements of the various forms of teaching and learning; building a dear radical framework which will embrace the whole area of education.
History of the Term Distance Education
The term distance education that Michael Moore chose to define the universe of teaching-learning relationships characterized by separation between learner and teacher was one he first heard in a conversation with the Swedish educator Brje Holmberg. Holmberg was director of the Hermods correspondence school in Sweden, and being fluent in German he had read about the work of a group of research at the University of Tubingen. Instead of talking about correspondence study these Germans use the term Fernstudium, or distance education; and Fernunterricht or distance teaching. Prominent among these were K. H. Rebel, M. Delling, K. Graff, G. Dohmen, and Otto Peters. Since they only publish their work in German; English-speaking scholars only knew it in later years mainly due to the efforts of Desmond Keegan.
Otto Peters
In 1967 Peters published a seminal work, which was translated into English in 1983 with the title distance teaching and industrial production. A comparative interpretation in outline. In this article Peters explained how it becomes clear that distance that he is a form of study complementary to our industrial and technical age. His thesis was that distance education is best understood as the application of industrial techniques and delivery of instruction and that unless industrial methods are used distance education will not be successful. These techniques include; systematic planning, specialization of the workforce, mass production of materials, automation, standardization, and quality control, as well as using a full range of modern communications technologies. This application of industrial practices will result in a high quality; the high cost of this is amortized when course are distributed to a large number of students -- what is known to economists as the economies of large-scale production.
Toward a Pedagogical Theory
Peters theory was an organizational theory and it didn't circulate in English until the 1980s. The nearest to a theory in English was Wedemeyer in 1971 attempt to define the independent learner as a person not only independent in space and time but also potentially independent and controlling and directing learning. Michael Moore was attracted by this idea of learner independence and the possibility that distance could actually be a positive force in helping adult learners individually and in groups to have greater control over their learning and more independence from the control of educational institutions. Although working with Wedemeyer he was more influenced than Wedemeyer by the writing of Carl Rogers, Abraham Maslow, Charlotte Buhler, and other so-called humanistic psychologist. Also at the time the ideas of andragogy promoted by Malcolm Knowles and the self-directed learning research of Alan Tough in 1971 was at the height of their popularity. In searching for the macro-factors Michael Moore gathered and analyzed the structure and design of several hundred of courses in which the teaching behavior are executed apart from the learning behaviors and on this empirical basis offered his theory at the 1972 conference, the theory was intended to be global and descriptive. In other words it was to be of sufficient generality to accommodate all forms of distance education as defined and to provide a conceptual tool that would place any distance education program and the relationship to any other. You are creating an equivalent of the periodic table advised University of Wisconsin adult education professor Robert Boyd. Follow Linnaeas said Charles Wedemeyer just as the 18th century scientist sought to identify the characteristics that would differentiate living creatures and also assist in classifying them the aim was to create a system for classifying this special type of education program. What emerged combines both the Peters perspective of distance education as a highly structured industrial system, and Wedemeyer perspective of a more learner-centered, interactive relationship between learner and teacher. Since 1986 it has been known as the theory of transactional distance.
Theory of Transactional Distance
The first core idea of the theory of transactional distance is that distance is a pedagogical phenomenon and is not simply a matter of geographic distance. Although it is true that distance education learners are separated by time and/or by time from their teachers, what is important for both practitioners and researchers is the effect that this geographic distance has on teaching and learning communications and interactions, curriculum and course design, and the organization and management of the education program. When we speak of distance learning we do not speak of an educational experience that is no different from the contiguous course except for the physical separation of learner and teacher but we describe a family of programs that have distinctive, qualitative differences. Transactional distance is the gap of understanding the communication between teacher and learners caused by geographic distance that must be bridged to distinctive procedures in instructional design and the facilitation of interaction.
Distance Education as a Transactional
The concept of transaction was derived by John Dooley and developed by Boyd and Apps 1980. As explained by Boyd and Apps; it connotes the interplay among the environment, the individuals and patterns of behavior in a situation. This transaction that we call distance education is the interplay between people were teachers and learners in environments that have the special characteristics of being separated from one another. It is the physical distance that leads to a communication gap, a psychological space of potential misunderstandings between instructor and learners that has to be bridged by special teaching techniques and this is the transactional distance. Transactional distance is a continuous rather than a discrete variable; a program is not either distance or not distance, more distance or less distance. In other words transactional distance is relative rather than absolute. As has been pointed out for example by Rumble 1986, there is some transactional distance in any educational the event even those in which learners and teachers meet face-to-face in the same space. What is normally referred to as distance education is that subset of educational events in which separation of teacher and learner is so significant that it affects their behavior in major ways. The separation actually dictates that teachers plan, present content, interact, and perform the other processes of teaching and significantly different ways from the face-to-face environment. In short the transactional distance in such that special organizational and teaching behaviors are essential, how special will depend on the degree of the transactional distance. These special teaching behaviors fall into clusters. We can describe transactional distance by looking at these teachers behaviors. Similarly, if we are designing courses we think about how much to invest in each of these clusters of teaching behavior; or, in other words, how much transactional distance we or our students will tolerate. The two sets of variables are labeled dialogue and structure.
Dialogue is a term that helps us focus on the interplay of words and actions and any other interactions between teacher and learner when one gives instruction and the other responds. Dialogue is not the same as interaction, drew interactions are necessary for creating dialogue. The extent and nature of this dialogue is determined by the educational philosophy of the individual or group responsible for the design of the course by the personalities of teacher and learner by the subject matter of the course, and by the environmental factors. One important environmet to factor that affects dialogue in the existence of a learning group and its size. It is probable there will be much more dialogue between an instructor and a single learner than between an instructor and a particular learned in a group of learners. Another environmental variable that influences dialogue is language; it is found that persons working in a foreign language are likely to interact less with an instructor than those who share the instructors tongue. One of the most important environment variables is the medium of communication. For example in a correspondence course or an online course each individual learner has a dialogue with the instructor through either electronic or surface mail. Because it is in writing this is a rather highly structured and -- in the case of surface mail -- a slow dialogue. A greater degree of dialogue is likely in a course taught online because of the speed in frequency of responses by teacher and student to the inputs of each author. Audio conferencing by telephone is usually a highly dialogue process. However as indicated before since the audio conference is group base there will be less dialogue for each individual student than in an online course. Also forms students usually feel more comfortable and engage in more dialogue by the text-based, asynchronous communication methods then they do in the faster, synchronous audio conference. If some courses such as those used in video telecourses have very little or no dialogue. It is possible to learn a foreign language, for example, from a video-telecourse. When watching these television tapes a student might actually speak out while giving a response to something that televised teacher says but since there is no feedback to the instructor, the instructor is not able to respond to student, and no dialogue occurs.


Guided Didactic Conversation
Working as professor at the distance University, in Hagen, Germany, Brje Holmberg selected the learner-teacher and dialogue as the fundamental characteristics of distance education. Distance teaching, suggested Holmberg 1981, should be a conversation, what he called a guided didactic conversation. Distance education, he said: ... implies that the character of good distance education resembles that of a guided conversation aimed at learning and that the presence of the typical traits of a conversation facilitates learning. And also the feeling of personal relation between the teaching and learning parties promotes study pleasures and student motivation and that such feeling can be fostered by well-developed self instructional material and suitable two-way communication at a distance.
The Growing Importance of Dialogue
In the decade since the formulation of the idea of dialogue in transactional distance there has been a considerable research of the social and language based nature of the teaching-learning relationship casting further light on the importance of the concept. This perspective is based on Vygotskys 1978 theory of learning which explains the centrality of language as a medium by which the learner constructs a way of thinking. The relation to learner autonomy is shown by be Vygotskian notion of handover. Through the exchange of meanings and the development of a shared understanding within the Vygotsky calls the zone of proximal development, learners gradually come to take control of the process of learning. They enter a community of shared discourse as novices and supported by a teacher or of the more competent person primarily through their growing confidence in using the tool of language progressively take charge of their own learning. In this Vygotskian perspective on learning a dialogue between teachers more competent other and learner is accompanied by a shift in control of the learning process from teacher to student.
Core Structure
The second set of variables that determine transactional distance are elements in the course design. The turn use described this structure. A course consists of such elements as, learning objectives, content themes, information presentation, case studies, pictorial and other illustrations, exercises, projects, and tests. Quality depends on how carefully bees are composed and how carefully structured. A design team might Pilate-test parts of their course on an experimental group and thus ascertain exactly how long it would take each student to accomplish each objective. They may measure the reading speed of their potential students and in theater the number of pages of reading required for each part of the course. Instructors may be provided detail rubrics and making schemes to help them ensure all students meet standard criteria for achievement. They may monitor the learning performance of each student with great frequency providing remedial activities for those that need them and so ensure that every student has accomplished a set of course in a tightly controlled sequence. The student may be emitted into the course has cohorts and none may be remitted to move into any content area except at the pace of home rule. In an online course or in using a printed study guide each student might be required to follow the same sequence of study and activity; audio and video materials may be synchronized very tightly to the specific pages and the study guide for on the Web; and online discussions may be carefully organized so that each student is included in an online chat room, according to a carefully scripted plan. By contrast a different course may permit students to explore an undefined set of web pages and/or tapes at their own speed, study a set of readings, and submit assignments online only when they feel ready. They may be told to call or e-mail an instructor for a help desk it, and only win, they wish to receive advice. Such would be a course with much lower structure than the former course just outlined. Light and dialogue, structure is determined by the educational philosophy of the teaching organization, the teachers themselves, the academic level of the learner, the nature of the content, and by the communication media that are employed. Since structure expresses the rigidity or flexibility of the courses educational objectives, teaching strategies, and evaluation methods, it describes the extent to which course components can accommodate war be responsive to eat learners individual needs. A recorded television program for example, not only permits no dialogue but it is also highly structured, with virtually every activity of the instructor and every second of time provided for in a script and every piece of content predetermined. There is little or no opportunity for any deviation according to the personal needs in Easton. This can be compared with many web-based courses, which can be structured in ways that allow students to follow many different paths through the content.
Structure and dialogue Measure Transactional Distance
The recorded television program is a very highly structured and teacher-learner and dialogue is nonexistent. This means the transactional distance is high, in the correspondence course mentioned earlier there is more dialogue and let structure so it has less transactional distance. In those live audio or video teleconference programs that have much more dialogue and little predetermined structure and the extent of transactional distance is even lower. In online settings in those courses have little or no dialogue, asynchronous or synchronous, are of higher transactional distance than those that have such a dialogue. Again and again it must be emphasized that these are generalizations, and the analysis has to be done on specific programs because so much more is involved in merely the technology being used. The extent of dialogue and degree of structure varies from course to course, from program to program. In a course or program with little transactional distance learner receives directions in guidance through ongoing dialogue with your instructor and by using instructional materials that allow modifications to suit their individual needs, learnin styles, and pace. In more distance courses where there is less dialogue and more structure learners have some guidance; if there is neither dialogue structure and been they must be entirely independent and make their own decisions about study strategies decide for themselves how to study, what to study, when, where, in what ways, and to what extent.
Learner Autonomy
Degree to the transactional distance the more such responsibility the learner has to exercise. Calling his 1972 ICCE presentation learner autonomy: the second dimension of independent study, Michael Moore declared that a theory of distance education that only considered the variables of teaching which would be flawed. This was at a time when all education including correspondence teaching was under the influence of behaviorist learning theory and the idea of learners being autonomous individuals constructing their own knowledge based on their own experience received little notice outside of some adult education circles. In the behaviorist view since distance learners were beyond the immediate environment of the teacher the main problem was how to optimally controlled them. In chapters were urged identify their goals and very specific behavioral turns to prescribe a highly structured regime of presentation, practice, and reward; and to test and measure achievement of all students according to the precise standards built into the objectives. The purpose of into action was to test the extent to which learners were achieving the instructors objectives and to give the successful learners positive reinforcement. The challenge for the educator was to reduce a perfect set of objectives, techniques, testing devices, one that would fit every learner in large numbers Ed distance so that no one would deviate or fold between the cracks. The parallel of a distance education pedagogy described in this way with the industry will model for delivery of education that Peters was working out at the same time is obvious. Having identified the importance of structure as a key element of distance education Michael Moore believed that in the theory of distance education, a balancing perspective was needed one that accepted the idiosyncrasies and independence of learners as a valuable resource rather than a distracting nuisance. In addition to highly structured courses in which passive learners were trained by irresistibly elegant instructional tools it was necessary to conceptualize a dimension that accommodate more collaborative relationships between teachers and learners which would allow for the fact that many learners chose their learning objectives and conduct, construct, and control much of the learning process and that some teachers and teaching institutions encourage this. The concept of learner autonomy is that learners have different capacities for making decisions regarding their own learning. The ability of a learned to developing personal learning plan -- the ability to find resources for study in one's own work or community environment and the ability to decide oneself when progress was satisfactory me not to be conceived as an extraneous and regrettable malaise in a smooth running, and shorter-controlled system. Instead degree to which these learners behaviors exist can be seen as an important dimension for the classification of distance education programs. It is the fact that some programs allow for greater exercise of learner on a nominee than others. Therefore programs can be defined and described in terms of what degree of autonomy learners are expected are permitted to exercise. This is not to say that all students are fully autonomous or ready to be autonomous or that all programs and teacher should treat them as such. Like dialogue structure learner autonomy is a relative concept. Since the original theory a number of important researchers have you never read it on the idea of learner autonomy particularly Candy 1991, Brookfield 1985, Pratt 1988 and Long et al 1989. One of the most comprehensive discussions of autonomy in the context of distance education theory is that of Munro (1991, 1988).
Desmond Keegan, when he founded the Australian Journal distance education in 1980, Keegan published in the first issue an analysis of what he called for in general accepted definitions of distance education. The four definitions were those of Holmberg, Peters, Michael Moore, and perhaps rather strangely in July 1971 law of France which regulated distance education in that country. For this analysis Keegan concluded that the following six elements are to be regarded as essentials for any comprehensive definition: separation of teacher and student, influence of an educational organization especially in the planning and preparation of learning materials, use of technical media, provision of two-way communication, possibility of occasional seminars, and participation in the most industrial form of education. Keegans summary of the four generally accepted definitions became the most widely cited definition of distance education. In 1986 he repeated his technique this time analyzing Peters, Michael Moore, Holmberg and Dohmen. He did not change his list of key elements but he did state them any local form. The first element for example was: the quasi-permanent separation of teacher and learner throughout the length of the learning process; this distinguishes it from conventional face-to-face education. The possibility of occasional seminars became: the quasi-permanent absence of the learning group throughout the land of the learning process so that people are usually taught as individuals and not in groups with the possibility of occasional meetings for both didactic and socialization purposes.
Randy Garrison, further insights into learner autonomy and its relationship to dialogue and structure are found in a model developed by a group of Canadian researchers. This group focuses the discussion of the learner-teacher relationship in terms of control. Another important term is proficiency which is the students ability to construct meaning and the disposition needed to initiate and persist any learning endeavor. The educators aim is to arrive at an optimum balance of control among facilitator, learners, and curriculum. The resulting learning outcome will be socially worthwhile as well as personally meaningful, if the three dimensions of control are in dynamic balance. Meaningful means the learners assume responsibility to make meaning of the content by simulating or accommodating new ideas and concepts into their existing knowledge structures. In addition, socially worthwhile knowledge is that knowledge which has been continually confirmed and which has redeeming social value. What is being described here is a collaborative constructivist perspective of teaching and learning what the individual has the responsibility to construct meaning impetus paid in reciprocal communication for the purpose of confirming understanding and generating worthwhile knowledge. Until recent times such collaborative constructivist approaches to learning at a distance were limited by the character of the technology. However new Internet networks make it possible to offer collaborative learning experiences at a distance in a cost-effective manner. Technological advances on allowing more distance education institutions in choosing to the agreement is that transactional rather than transmissive. Garrisons 1989 model proposes six types of transactional relationships, building on Michael Moore's 1980 93-part model of interaction. That's in addition to learner-content, London-in short, and learner-learner interactions, Garrison added; teacher-content, teacher-teacher, and content-content. With the incorporation of computer-mediated conferences into program designed to support interaction, Hillman, Willis, and Gunawardena 1994 and a four type of interaction which take-home learner-interface interaction. Garrison 2000 argues that the focus of distance education theory has shifted from structural constraints overcoming geography to transactional issues ptimizing teaching-learning strategies. Recent research has been concerned with the cognitive and social presence that occurs in computer mediated interaction.
Collaborative Learning and the Social Construction of Knowledge
Conceptualizing learning as socially situated some researchers argue that group based collaborative learning enables development of learning communities in the short term and potential communities in practice in the long term. Since in distance settings, normal communication is conveyed through an artificial medium we must find ways to achieve social presence. One seminal study developed by interaction analysis model to examine the social constructions of knowledge and computer mediated instruction. It was concluded that the dynamics of the virtual report all the participants toward various forms of compromise and negotiation on the way to socially constructing a commonly acceptable knowledge. Research suggests that the affection, inclusion, and sense of solidarity of the group, the ease of expression and synthesis of multiple viewpoints with no one student dominating, are important characteristics in the successful social structure the knowledge online. In an earlier study of computer mediated instruction, Cheng et al 19 anyone reported a higher completion rate for those learners will work collaboratively in 90% than for those who work independently 22%.
System Dynamics of Saba
With his colleagues and students Saba has elaborated the theory of transactional distance by using computer simulated modeling. In the first project, Saba and Twitchell used a computer simulation method based on systems dynamics modeling techniques that demonstrates and explains the interactions of different forces in the distance education system. Next, Saba employed the model to describe the interrelationship of the variables that make up structure and dialogue. Here is how he describes the model 1988: integrated systems provided a flexible means for decreasing structure through integrated dialogue. They also expedite increased structures will dialogue can be kept to a desirable level. This defines a demented relationship between dialogue and the level of required structure. This relationship can be displayed as a negative feedback loop in a system dynamics casual diagram. The negative flow diagram represents an inverse relationship between levels of thy love and structure. As dialogue increases, structure decreases, and as structure decreases dialogue increases to keep the system stable. In negative feedback loops, the stability of the system depends on interventions from outside the loop. The level depends on the actions of teacher and learner. In a plausible scenario, the need for decreasing structure is communicated to the teacher. Consultation automatically increases dialogue; then adjustments in goals, instructional materials, and evaluation procedures of car and the learner achieved the desired level of autonomy.
Saba expanded the system model in a third project mentioning before, when he ran simulations of distance students exchanges with instructors to measure relationships of transactional distance and autonomy. Using a technique for coding speech called discourse analysis the researchers identified the speech content of a number of educational transactions at a distance and classified them into 10 main categories and 20 subcategories. In this way they are operationalized dialogue, structure, and teacher/learner control and measure the effects that changes in any of these had in the others.
Others Applications of Theory of Transactional Distance
at the University of Hawaii, Bischoff et al 1996 survey 221 students perceptions of structure, dialogue, and transactional distance in a coarse mediated by interactive television. Data was generated by a 68-item questionnaire and items were measured along a 5-point Likert scale. As expected, results showed that dialogue and transactional distance were inversely proportional; that is, a dialogue increase, transactional distance decrease. Chen and Willits 1999 study the experiences of 121 learners in a videoconferencing environment. They found that the greater the transactional distance between instructor and learner the student perceive their learning outcomes lower. What had the most significant effect on the learners perceived learning outcomes was the frequency of in class dialog. They found that the larger the learning group the greater the distance transaction between in structure and learners as perceived by learners. In research on factors that affect online dialogue in computer mediated instruction, Vrasidas and MacIsaac 1999 emphasized the relationships of the structure of the course, class size, feedback, and prior experience. Prior experience with CMC along with access to appropriate technology is relevant to the quality of dialogue, a point noted by Wegerif 1998. Hopper 2000 undertook a qualitative study of life circumstances and transactional distance in a videoconferencing environment and found that even students who reported a perception of high transactional distance were satisfied with their experience and the level of their achievements. Gayol 1995 use transactional distance theory to explore the transactions that occurred in the computer-mediated communication learning environment of students in the course with participants in four different countries, with four different languages. Posted assignments and messages of the students and the instructor were analyzed to measure the changes in the degree of dialogue, structure, and learner autonomy. Bunker, Gayol, Nti, and Reidell 1996 examined the effect of changes in structure on dialogue in an audio-conferencing course connecting nine sites internationally. In another study Chen 2001 measured the impact of individual and instructional variables on learners perceived transactional distance in a world wide web learning environment and recommended the future development of instruments for measuring transactional distance.
Theory and the Student
What these examples indicate how researchers can base their study on the fear radical platform and how the result of each study them, in turn, makes the platform or helpful for the next researcher. You can see the theories serves as a tool to help specify variables of structure, dialogue, and learner autonomy, and then suggests questions about the relationships among these variables. Unfortunately there is far too little research and that is theoretically oriented in this way. After an extensive review of research on web-based instructions, Jung 2001 concluded: Web based in structure and we sure showed little resemblance to establish pedagogical theory in general or distance education theory in particular. While some studies raise their research questions and discuss the findings in theoretical frameworks other studies have little relationship to establish learning theories. She went on to suggest questions for future research, including: does the extent of rigidity or flexibility in the structure of a web based instruction course of the dialogue and transactional distance as is the case in other distance education modes?; what Web based instruction structure best supports interaction and learning?; what are the effects of different types of interaction on learning and satisfaction in web-based instruction?; and how can we balanced learner autonomy and core structure in Web based instruction? Following Jung, we would agree that there is a need for much more research of an empirical nature to identify the many variables that lie within structure, dialogue, and autonomy; and to explore them more thoroughly. There are rich opportunities for graduate students in this unexplored feel, especially with the rapid growth of web-based injection. But, as Jung emphasizes, when students looked into the possibilities of research is important eight first read as much as possible of the existing distance education literature. The journals mentioned in this book will provide the basis of this reading. It is also necessary fr students to think how they can connect their thinking about research and distance education with their study of the more general body of educational research and theory. There are many aspects of traditional learning theory that are relevant to distance learning. Likewise, there is a great deal of research in instructional design and technology-based delivery systems that is directly applicable to distance education efforts.
The Theory and the Practitioner
What determines the success of distance teaching is the extent to which the institution and the individual instructor are able to invite the appropriate structure and design of learning materials, and the appropriate quantity and quality of dialogue between teachers and learners, taking into account the extent of the learners autonomy. The more highly autonomous the learner, the greater is the distance they can be comfortable with IE their last the dialogue in the last structure. For others, the goal must be reduced distance by increasing dialogue ranging from online asynchronous to synchronous interaction, perhaps using the telephone, or at the most extreme, face-to-face contact, while providing the security of sufficient structure.  more

Order details

This Order is for 2 chapter of the dissertation that includes 1) introduction/problem statement and 2) literature review/theoretical framework. It must follow the APA style on f...ormat. I will email an old proposal and research protocol to be used as reference. The 2 chapters will be followed my research method and findings/conclusion chapter later. The first two chapters should be based on the information described in research proposal and protocol and other supporting information can be found from the bibliography or other related sources. The writer needs to rewrite and put more content related to Limited Capacity Theory of Annie Lang, Communication co-orientation theory, and Divergent perceptions regarding self and others. I will send over a table of content that can be used as a reference when lay out the structure of these two chapters. The main goal is to revise the research proposal to a better organized structure and add a bit more muscle to it. The writer can keep using the citations that have been used in the proposal, but other parts needs to be paraphrased since some parts are copy and pasted from other sources.

In general, all content in the first 2 chapters of the proposal can be re-used (paraphrased), then about 20% more content needs to be added for the 3 areas mentioned above, i.e., Limited Capacity Theory of Annie Lang, Communication co-orientation theory, and Divergent perceptions regarding self and others. The writer can use bibliographies to find more related studies/information.

The third chapter of research design in the old proposal has been changed and dont need to be used for the rewriting of chapter 1 and chapter 2. To help the writer understand the new experiment better, here is some information:

Basically, there are 4 different groups/conditions:
1) Single Task (ST): subject and collaborator working together through online chat to discuss and decide final answers on multiple choice survival questions;
2) Multiple Task Same Distraction (MS): subject and collaborator working together through online chat to discuss and decide final answers on multiple choice survival questions. In addition, subject and distracter also work together through online chat to decide answers on worst scenario questions. Both collaborator and distracter did not know that the subject is working simultaneously with other people.
3) Multiple Task Different Distraction (MD): subject and collaborator working together through online chat to discuss and decide final answers on multiple choice survival questions. In addition, subject and distracter also work together through online telephone (Skype) to decide answers on worst scenario questions. Both collaborator and distracter did not know that the subject is working simultaneously with other people.
4)Single subject: subject work on his/her own to finish the multiple choice questions that have been used for subject and collaborator communication in other conditions. This group will be used as a baseline to compare independent working with collaborative working with others. (this is a condition that was not mentioned in the research protocol)

The goal of this study is to compare the performance and perception difference among different groups under 4 above mentioned conditions; compare self perceived performance and partner perceived performance and experience. Since the study design has been change a little, the writer needs to put in new information regarding the single subject condition. Whenever there is a extra student, he/she will be signed to the single subject condition so we dont lose data and participants.

Both pre and post experiment questionnaires are on surveymonkey.com The link is Pre questionnaire:
http://www.surveymonkey.com/s.aspx?sm=ThEAgJHZehW166WdGUrkjQ_3d_3d
Post questionnaire:
http://www.surveymonkey.com/s.aspx?sm=hCS4iPh28QBhY7idAXWytw_3d_3d

The questions used for this experiment came from the book called The Worst-Case Scenario Book Of Survival Questions:
http://www.amazon.com/Worst-Case-Scenario-Book-Survival-Questions/dp/0811845397/ref=pd_sim_b_img_2


The above information will give writer a better idea of the whole study so that the first 2 chapters will be closely linked together with research questions, hypothesis, relevant theories, and later data analysis and discussion. When the data collection is done in mid May, I will place the order for last chapter on findings and conclusions.

Please email me if you have any questions regarding the study design or related theories. I will provide all the information available to help.

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If this project turns out good, I'll be back in January for my thesis paper. I teach elementary math and this is an instructional design project. My topic is measurement such as area, perimeter, and v...olume. Please reference the Texas Essential Knowledge and Skills for measure for grade 5 mathematics. They are found here: http://www.tea.state.tx.us/rules/tac/chapter111/ch111a.html (Scroll almost to the bottom and they start at 5.1) My instructions are below:







Instructional Design and Performance Improvement Project



Define a problem that can be solved through appropriate instruction. The instructional design process begins by analyzing this problem. In this project you will analyze the instructional problem that you have identified and provide a rationale for why this problem can be solved through instruction rather than through other means. After the underlying nature of the problem has been analyzed, you will need to identify any and all domains of knowledge needed to solve the problem, identify component tasks for each, and develop a corresponding objective for each task. These objectives guide the design process and help you select and sequence content, instructional strategies and assessment measures. Your final product must be in APA style and should include the following:

1. Problem statement and needs analysis

2. Goal statement

3. Learner analysis

4. Task analysis

5. Performance objectives

6. Instructional strategies and supporting learning theories



Problem Statement. This statement should clearly identify the problem and identify sources of the problem. Conduct a needs analysis by obtaining additional information on the problem from others through the use of observation, interviews, focus groups, achievement tests, surveys, or other appropriate data gathering instruments. In the needs analysis, obtain information regarding the difference between the current state of affairs and the desired state of affairs. The results of the needs analysis should demonstrate that there is a need for instruction to solve the problem. The problem statement in your project should include the following subheadings:

1. Background of the problem

2. Definition of the problem

3. Needs analysis (this should contain a description of the data collection and analysis techniques used in your needs analysis and the findings of your needs analysis)

4. Rationale for the need for instruction (based on the needs analysis)

5. Available resources (resources you have available for creating an instructional unit to help solve this problem)



Goal Statement. After all the information about the problem has been gathered then it is possible to better identify the “what should be.� The goal statement is the expression of the way things should be. Instructional goals focus on what learners will be able to do when they complete the set of instructional materials. It describes the real world context, outside the learning situation, where the learner will use the new skills and knowledge. Write an instructional goal statement that (1) contains a clear, general statement of learner outcomes (2) describes what the learner will be able to do using a measurable verb, and; (3) relates to the identified problem and needs assessment.

Learner Analysis. An important part of the analysis process is gathering information about the learners. The learner analysis describes the target audience and provides valuable information that helps to identify deficiencies that will become the focus of instruction. Additionally, the learner analysis provides important information for the selection of instructional strategies. Subheadings in the learner analysis section should include:

1. Demographic information

2. Relevant group characteristics

3. Prior knowledge of topic

4. Entry level knowledge and skills

5. Attitudes and/or motivation toward the subject

6. When appropriate, additional information may include education level, learning styles and/or orientations.

Task Analysis. Once the goals of the instruction or curriculum have been determined the next step in the instructional design process is the task analysis. In the task analysis the instructional designer analyzes how an expert performs a complex job by breaking the job down into simple, easy to perform steps that need to be performed in order to meet the course or curriculum goals. The task analysis identifies both the steps and the sequence that the steps are performed. You may choose to do either a topic analysis or a procedural analysis depending on the nature of your project. A topic analysis identifies facts, concepts, principles, and rules needed for the instruction and is well suited for defining cognitive knowledge. A procedural analysis identifies both the observable and non-observable (cognitive) steps required to complete psychomotor tasks, job tasks, or multi-step cognitive sequences.



A hierarchical numbering scheme should be used to label the items in a task analysis.

Example:



1.0 Task 1

1.1 First step of task 1

1.2 Second step

1.2.1 First sub-step step 1.2

1.3 Third step

2.0 Task 2

2.1 First step of task 2

2.2 Etc.

Performance Objectives. A performance objective is a detailed description of what students will be able to do when they complete a unit of instruction. The objectives are usually derived from the steps in the goal analysis identified in the task analysis. Performance objectives. follow the three-part standard as identified by Mager: (1) a description of the condition under which the learner must be able to perform the task; (2) a statement of the intended learning outcome in terms of a measurable performance, and (3) the standard for an acceptable level of performance.

Instructional Strategies and Theories of Learning. The performance objectives provide a focus for selecting instructional content and instructional strategies to help ensure the mastery of your goal. Now that you have completed the learner analysis and have identified the performance objectives, consider effective instructional strategies for teaching the content. Consider using either Gagne’s Nine Events of Instruction or the abbreviated Five Events as found in the Systematic Design of Instruction by Dick and Carey as a framework.



After you have discussed the instructional strategies briefly discuss how you expect learning to occur using these strategies based on one or more of the three theories of learning: behaviorism, cognitivism or constructivism.



   more

Using what we have studied, we arw to write a 10 page paper with the topic Ways to improve ethical behavior of those in a public office or organization. We are required to provide examples of managing... ethics our paper. The 10 pages (body of paper) do not include the Title Page and References. The specific content of applications and setting of the paper is the discretion of the individual student. We must abide by APA. Citations should be parenthetical. Other specifics of the paper are: 12 pitch font of Times New Roman or Courier
10 pages in length and number the pages (body of paper)
1 inch margins all the way around
Place name and email address on each page of the paper
Double spaced
Title page and References are in addition to the body of paper.


Information of the class that may be helpful: The title of the class in which this paper is for is Policy Analysis and Program Evaluation. The following is an outline of the overall and week objectives of the class:

Overall Objectives
a. Differentiate among the various types of social and behavioral problems subject to policy analysis
b. Describe the purpose and goals of policy analysis and program evaluation
c. Explain the process and forms of policy-making
d. Summarize important policy analysis concepts
e. Illustrate basic policy problems using appropriate methods
f. Analyze and evaluate policy outcomes applying basic statistical methods and techniques to support policy recommendations
g. Identify and explain the process of policy argument development
h. Illustrate proposed answers to policy problems using an issue paper or policy memo.

Weekly Objectives

Week 1
a. Define public policy
b. Describe the basic concepts associated with public policy
c. List the reasons why public policy is studied
d. Describe public policy in a social, economic, political, governing, and cultural context
e. Identify rationales for government intervention
f. Define policy analysis
Week 2
a. Define gridlock and identify the reasons it happens
b. Define policy capacity
c. Describe the concept of federalism
d. Identify the purpose of the separation of powers
e. Describe the roles of policy subgovernments and issue networks
f. Explain the impact of public opinion on policymaking
g. Describe the role of interest groups in public policy
h. List reasons for the growth of government
i. Describe various models and theories of politics and public policy
j. Identify the major elements of the policy process model
k. Identify the instruments of public policy
l. Identify policy typologies
Week 3
a. Define policy analysis
b. Identify various types of policy analysis
c. Choose the appropriate policy analysis for any given situation
d. List the steps in the policy analysis process
e. Define problem analysis
f. Describe the process of finding information
g. Construct alternatives
h. Think creatively about policy action
Week 4
a. Identify evaluative criteria for judging policy proposals
b. Define effectiveness, efficiency, and equity
c. Use various methods of policy analysis
Week 6
a. Provide a background of economic policymaking in the United States
b. Identify goals of economic policy
c. Describe the various tools of economic policy
d. Describe the budget process and its effect on economic policy
e. Identify future economic issues and challenges
f. Provide a background of healthcare policy in the United States
g. Describe the evolution of health care policy
h. Identify the strengths and weaknesses of the U.S. healthcare system
i. Describe the features of major government health care programs
j. Explain the issues surrounding rising health care costs
k. Describe the environment of managed care
Week 7
a. Describe the changing demographics of social security
b. Identify problems with social security
c. Explain the financing behind social security
d. Describe the concept of welfare
e. Identify welfare reform options
Week 8
a. Provide a background of education policy in the United States
b. Identify problems facing education
c. Identify education policy reform options
Week 9
a. Describe the evolution of environmental and energy policy in the United States
b. Identify major federal environmental policies
c. List common themes in environmental protection policy
Week 10
a. Identify how public policy affects citizens
b. Describe policy analysis and how policy choices are made
c. Evaluate public policy
d. Improve policy capacity
e. Identify forms of citizen participation in decision making  more

SOURCES HAVE BEEN UPLOADED TO THE FAX BOARD.

Please only use outside sources (approximetely two) to supplement what was proven in each field work asssignment. Dont use that to base arguments..., as this assignment is based on each individul assignment alone
----Be specific. Site the arguments in each field work assignment.
-----4 pages are given to the 3 field work assignments, 5 are given to the second 3 -5 page work assignemts.




Part I

Complete the following four (4) observation assignments.



1) Food Ritual Observance



2) Commodity Chain Analysis



3) Symbolic Meaning Analysis



4) Write a 3-5 page critical report summarizing your findings and the implications of your analysis. Based on this report prepare a 5 minute in-class presentation with a visual aid (PowerPoint slides, video clip, poster-board, etc.).



Assignment #1

Food Ritual Observance Prescribed Formal Behavior



Method: participant observation= observing a role; being both a distanced observer and a participant (even by just attending)



Assignment Expectations:

Attend and observe a formal or informal food ritual (a meal, snack or social beverage shared with other people). Some examples might be: a meal eaten at home with your roommate, a family dinner, a snack break with your friends during a study session, a dinner date, meeting a friend for coffee or a drink.



Assignment Goal/Background:

Improve observation and reporting skills.

Thick description of an everyday activity.

Ritual Analysis of an everyday activity.



Background: DuBischs work on Food Ritual and Turners definitions of ritual (see below).

Turner (1967:19) defined ritual as "prescribed formal behavior for occasions not given over to technological routine, having reference to beliefs in mystical beings and powers." Turner also described ritual as "a stereotyped sequence of activities involving gestures, words, and objects, performed in a sequestered place, and designed to influence preternatural entities or forces on behalf of the actors' goals and interests" (Turner 1977a:183)



Directions:

Observe the details of the event. Take notes during or immediately after the event in journal format. Provide a detailed description of the event.



Questions to ask yourself:

What roles do the participants take on? (what connects these

individuals?)

What is your role as a participant?

What is the larger context for this event/ceremony?

Where is the event taking place? Describe the context.

What are the stereotyped sequence of activities involved?

Can you apply the concepts of taboo and mana to

activities, objects, and actions observed?

Assignment #2 Commodity Chain Analysis



Pick a food item that is part of your regular diet (preferably an item consumed during assignment #1). You will map out (illustration with accompanying text) the commodity chain of the food item back to its source. This will involve asking questions, internet and library research, mapping out the connections between producer and consumer.





Assignment #3 Symbolic System Analysis

Pick a food item that is part of your regular diet (preferably the item discussed in assignment #2). You will explore the cultural meanings associated with the food item by situating the item within a symbolic system that is part of your everyday experience. What kind of cultural values and norms were you able to uncover? This will involve self-reflection in journal format. You may need to ask questions, or perform further internet and library research.





Assignment #4 Report the findings

Write a 3-5 page report summarizing and critically evaluating your research findings. What did you learn from this hands-on exercise? What were some of the connections you made between your own experience and the experiences recounted in the ethnographic work you read for the course? Make sure to cite your field notes and any course materials referenced.


Here all are the final resources. I have attached three of my papers, powerpoint slides for the class, an outside essay that might help.

Also here are some links to good sources-

http://www.pbs.org/journeytoplanetearth/about/landofplenty.html

http://100milediet.org/bookus/

http://www.grist.org/news/maindish/2007/04/24/100-mile/

http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=10219029

Customer will not be sending faxes!  more

Public relations campaign proposal:
Plz follow the Required Components below

This assignment is based on the material contained in study modules 711. which will be emailed to :

r...esources@essaytown.com
questions@snrinfo.com
------------------------------------------------------------

This assignment requires you to submit a proposed public relations campaign for a client of your own choice.

Because this is a foundation course, you will not be in a position to develop and implement a fully researched and planned campaign. However, you will be able to research the clients situation, develop the objectives of the campaign, identify the relevant target publics, develop campaign strategies and identify the communication tools with which target publics can be reached, strategies implemented, objectives achieved and results evaluated. While this is a campaign proposal, it is important to ensure that the communication tools and tactics are explained in detail, including such information as messages to be used, mediums or channels and timing.

As this is intended to be as true to life as possible, the client you choose for this proposed campaign is entirely at your discretion. Many of you might be members of clubs, associations or youth groups which are looking to recruit new members or generally make others more aware of your organisations activities. Others may see a particular communication problem or challenge developing within your workplace that could benefit from public relations, or there may be an emerging issue relevant to an organisation or community with which you are familiar and proper public relations planning may be needed. Whatever the situation, you will need to think of ways of meeting the challenge or overcoming the problem by setting appropriate goals, developing the public relations strategies and implementing the tactics and tools.

Remember, you do not need to implement the campaign, but to provide recommendations on how a campaign could be carried out. That is, you provide a detailed description of how the campaign should be conducted from development to implementation.

In this proposal, you should develop the aim of the campaign and its objectives, identify the relevant target publics, develop campaign strategies and communication tactics, specify the tools to be used, and the methods by which the program will be evaluated. While this is a campaign proposal, it is important to ensure that the communication tools and tactics are explained in detail, including such information as key messages to be included, mediums or channels to be used, and timing.

In the proposal, you must address the following headings:

Problem/opportunity statement this should reflect the scope of the problem/opportunity to be addressed and the sequence of events which brought about the need for the campaign. Ensure you also provide an accurate and detailed account of your client and what it is you intend to achieve through the campaign (campaign goals).

Research outline the research you would recommend the organisation undertake before embarking on this campaign. What data do you need to design a good campaign in this case? How would you gather this data what methods would you recommend?

Campaign objectives these should be measurable and specific written in the style suggested by Hendrix from your selected readings.

Target publics provide a detailed analysis of the various target publics to be reached using the theory and practical methods you have learned.

Communication message identify the key message/s that will be communicated through your campaign.

Strategy set the strategic approach for the campaign.

Tactics indicate the tactics (persuasion and influence) you propose for the campaign.

Action plan:

Communication tools here you should explain which communication tools will be used, why, what messages they will contain, which channels or mediums will they encompass and the outcomes that you expect to be achieved. It is important that you specify the communication media, activities and channels to be used and do not simply refer to a list of generic tools.

Time frame/schedule provide a detailed calendar identifying the length of time involved and the scheduling of activities over that period of time. Some campaigns run for days, weeks or even months. It entirely depends on the objectives that you set yourself and how they are accomplished.

The budget provide a breakdown of the budget applicable to the proposal, including such aspects as human resources, printing and production costs, media space (print or electronic), venue costs, equipment hire costs, incidental and office expenses and so on. Work within as realistic a framework as possible given the size and capacity of the client and the proposed campaign.

Evaluation outline the research methods by which the effectiveness of your campaign could be measured.

Appendices include in the Appendices of your assignment any additional information, draft surveys or questionnaires, publicity or advertising concepts etc.


Note

For a guide to Harvard referencing
Section

Required Components:

Problem statement
Background detail on client provided

Identification of problem/opportunity to be addressed

Impetus for campaign identified

Effective campaign goal(s) developed

/10

Research
Information required to guide campaign effectively identified

Appropriate research methods nominated

/10

Objectives
Appropriate campaign objectives identified

Objectives written according to Hendrixs Guidelines

/15

Target Publics
Appropriate target publics identified and described (eg. their relevance to the campaign explained)

/05

Communication message
Effective campaign message/s identified

/05

Strategy
Appropriate strategy/strategies identified

Clear link to campaign goal(s)

/05

Tactics
Appropriae tactics developed

/05

Action plan
Appropriate tactics developed

Appropriate tools selected and explained

Detailed schedule/calendar provided

Detailed budget provided

/25

Evaluation
Appropriate evaluation measures and methods identified

Link to measures outlined in objectives provided

/10

Appendices
(marks included in relevant section.)

Presentation
Paper presented in appropriate format (line spacing, font, margins, etc.)

/05

Academic demands
Intext referencing provided throughout paper (and in correct format) to indicate where data has been drawn from sources.

Bibliography provided at end of paper and in correct format.

/05

Expression
Formal writing style has been developed (e.g. avoiding use of first person expression, slang, colloquialisms)

Correct grammar and spelling

1 for each error.*

Total
./100


*
1 mark will be deducted for each technical error up to a maximum of 20 errors. Assignments with more than 20 errors will be failed.




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The thesis should include the following introduction:

Detailed SOW
This paper would like to probe what kind of educational system would be beneficial for students, business and is more s...uccessful in meeting educational objectives, whether its for-profit education or traditional education. Although education is a huge part of the U.S. economy, until recently it wasn't much of a business. This paper would not only be helpful to my fellow students but also be useful to other students and investors who would like to use this kind of research problem for further investigation.
In depth research from journals, magazines, newspapers and internet sources are valuable to this paper; thousands of information can be utilized in order for the author to arrive in such conclusions.
The topic was carefully chosen by the author because of its timely manner and general issues can be raised and a lot of people from all various levels will benefit from this research paper. Education is very vital to us, and all of us know the essence of education and what it can do to us and to our society. For-profit education can be good for business and for education. We should be able to identify key factors that affect the current education system not only in our country but the whole world as well.
This research proposal seeks any competition or rivalries between for profit education and traditional education. In view of this, the author also would like to expand various critiques of for profit education.
Random assignment will be used as a tentative research design to identify the cause and effect of differences of education system to the society. Quantitative analysis will be used as a tentative data analysis and interpretation, because quantitative data are analyzed using statistics. There are a lot of descriptive statistics available with regards to the topic of this research proposal. Through analyzing descriptive statistics, the author will be able to arrive in a descriptive analysis where there would be comparisons between variables, measure its relationship that can be interpreted as such. Survey or questionnaire to various students from different classes of education system will be a big factor in differentiating their differences.

****Please make sure the thesis is the same as your page advertises. The same format with executive summary and all. Thank You!

The following paper should be based on For-Profit VS. Traditional Education.

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MM522 Marketing Plan Guide
MM522 MARKETING PLAN GUIDE
Objective
This Marketing Plan assignment gives you the opportunity to practice develop an integrated business and marketing strategy f...or a product or service of your choice. This activity will make the course "come alive" through application of the principles from the textbook, course materials and threaded discussions. Assignments such as this also help you develop business-oriented communication skills.
The development of this Marketing Plan is an integral part of the course, and will require several weeks of research, critical analysis, critical thinking, and writing. Students tell us the only way to do well on this project is to begin early and work on it consistently throughout the entire course.
You have several options when choosing a product or service for your marketing plan. Consider choosing a new product for a new company (your own) or creating a new product for an existing company. Perhaps you would want to do a product extension of an existing product. You might consider a different approach to marketing an existing service. You can target consumers or businesses. You may choose a product or service offered by your employer or your own business, or one from another organization. Ultimately, to maximize your learning experience, choose a product or service in which you have an interest and about which you would like to see your product or service come to the marketplace. Make sure there is information available about the industry and target market of the product or service you choose.
Remember that this is a Marketing Plan and not a Business Plan. You are not creating a business, but creating the Marketing Plan for an existing product or service. Thus, your focus should not be on the company or its products, but on how to market the product or service that you have chosen. Provide enough background and history to put the marketing plan in perspective. Do a comprehensive SWOT analysis with an in-depth and candid look at your internal and external environment. Establish your goals and objectives. Analyze the information developed, and only then begin defining your target market, and specifying the specific marketing strategies." Do not simply report on how a company markets its goods or services. You should instead say what type of marketing you would propose.
Your instructor will look at your Marketing Plan from the point of view of a business proposal. Have you thought through and considered your options? Have you provided details of your proposal? Have you looked at the entire strategy - the big picture - while still considering the more operational elements that make for successful implementation? How well written and persuasive is the plan?
Guidelines
In developing your content, try to demonstrate clarity of thinking, understanding, and application of basic marketing principles, and creative --- but realistic -- use of marketing tools. Explorations of your options and choices are an important part of demonstration of your mastery of marketing concepts. There is seldom only one potential course of action in developing a real marketing plan; demonstrate that you have considered options and alternatives at each step in your plan and have chosen the best.
Review the Chapter two Marketing Plan example and the Sonic Marketing Plan Example and Exercises found in the Appendix of your Kotler textbook. The questions asked in the exercises may help you further develop your Marketing Plan.
MM522 Marketing Plan Guide
Marketing Plan Outline
1.0 Executive Summary
2.0 Situation Analysis
2.1 Market Summary
2.2 SWOT Analysis
2.3 Competition
2.4 Product (Service) Offering
2.5 Keys to Success
2.6 Critical Issues
3.0 Marketing Strategy
3.1 Mission
3.2 Marketing Objectives
3.3 Financial Objectives
3.4 Target Markets
3.5 Positioning
3.6 Strategies
3.7 Marketing Mix
3.8 Marketing Research
4.0 Controls
4.1 Implementation
4.2 Marketing Organization
4.3 Contingency Planning
5.0 Conclusion
Paper Format:
Every draft of your Marketing Plan should be formatted per APA guidelines and include:
o Title Page
o Page header and running head
o Table of contents (optional)
o Double-spaced text using Times New Roman 12-point type
o Headings and Subheadings as listed above
o In Text citations
o Reference Page
Your Final Marketing Plan should be 18-20 pages in length.
Page counts do not include the title page, table of contents, or reference page
Milestones and Grading Rubrics
It is recommended that you have one working draft of your Marketing Plan and add to it throughout the course. Remember to read the grade feedback and go back and revise your marketing plan prior to submitting your final draft.
Category
Points
%
Description
Marketing Plan Topic (Week One)
20
6
Submit your Marketing Plan topic using the Marketing Plan Topic Form found in Doc Sharing.
MP First Draft (Week Two)
70
20
Your first draft must include 2.0 Situation Analysis and all supporting sections 2.1 through 2.6.
MP Second Draft (Week Four)
70
20
For your second draft, add 3.0 Marketing Strategy plus sections 3.1 through 3.4.
MP Third Draft (Week Six)
70
20
In your third draft, you need to complete the 3.0 Marketing Strategy section by adding sections 3.5 through 3.8.
MM522 Marketing Plan Guide
Final Marketing Plan (Week Seven)
Your final marketing plan must include the final version of all sections including 1.0 Executive Summary, all sections in 4.0 Controls, and 5.0 Conclusion
MP Content
60
17
Includes all required sections. Demonstrates clarity of thinking, understanding, and application of basic marketing principles, and creative --- but realistic -- use of marketing tools
Documentation & Formatting
30
9
Your Marketing Plan follows APA guidelines and assignment format instructions. You are required to have a minimum of eight research references.
Organization & Cohesiveness
15
4
Your Marketing Plan is well organized using headings, subheadings and paragraph structure.
Editing
15
4
Graduate level writing ??" good grammar, spelling, punctuation, and good sentence structure.
Total
350
100
A quality paper will meet or exceed all of the above requirements.
Best Practices
Research is essential! As with any entrepreneur who is considering a venture into the world of business, one should not blindly walk into minefields. You are already aware that the business environment is highly competitive. Thus, the more you know about the market into which you are going, the more you know about the competition, the more you know about similar ventures (successful or not so), the more you have explored the potential market for your product or service, the better prepared you are to create a PLAN that minimizes risk and maximizes the likelihood of success. For the same reason you would not purchase stocks blindly and would investigate such a purchase before plunking down your hard-earned money, so is it with a Marketing Plan. Know into what and where you are going.
Remember that Marketing exists to solve consumer/business problems with a SOLUTION.
Your Marketing Plan will be written in the THIRD Person.
Tables, charts, graphs, and graphics that accurately illustrate your strategies are welcome.
Developing your Marketing Plan
Title Page - Set up page per APA guidelines; add page header and running head
Table of Contents - Optional; Use outline
1.0 Executive Summary - The Executive Summary appears at the beginning of the paper, but is written last. This introductory section is the hook to grab the reader's interest. This section should summarize your plan with enough information to convince the reader to keep reading. If you were showing this plan to an investor, this section may be the key to your success.
2.0 Situation Analysis - What critical issues do you face? What forces in the macroenvironment need to be considered? What are the companys capabilities?
MM522 Marketing Plan Guide
2.1 Market Summary - How would you define the market? How big is the market? How fast is the market growing? What are the elevant trends?
2.2 SWOT Analysis - What are the Internal Strengths and Weaknesses, and External Opportunities and Threats?
2.3 Competition ??" Who are competitors? What are they doing? What is their position in the market? How do they compare?
2.4 Product (Service) Offering - What needs does the product or service fulfill or what problem does it solve? What is the product offering? What are the features, advantages and benefits?
2.5 Keys to Success - What are the most important factors to making your plan successful?
2.6 Critical Issues ??" How will you get your product or service to the consumer? Will you use distributors, intermediaries, warehouses, retailers, the internet, or ?
3.0 Marketing Strategy - Introduce your marketing strategies; What IMC approach are you planning? What marketing strategies will you use? What advertising strategies will you use? What types of media? Why did you choose these strategies?
3.1 Mission - What is the mission of your e-business? Your organization exists to accomplish something. Who is your customer? What is of value to the customer?
3.2 Marketing Objectives - Meeting these marketing objectives should lead to sales; Objectives should be clear, be measurable, and have a stated time frame for achievement
3.3 Financial Objectives - the ultimate goal of your Marketing plan is the effect it will have on the bottom line; example: customer sales by volume and growth percentage or growth percentage by market segments
3.4 Target Markets - What general strategy will be used to reach your target market? Needs/Benefits sought by the market; Product usage; Product positioning; Consumer/Business purchasing process (decision-making); Market size estimates; This section should include extensive research, for example: Data on your product/service industry, Demographics/Psychographic profile: gender, age, occupation, education, life style geographic region, attitudes, purchasing characteristics, etc.
3.5 Positioning - What opinions does your audience already have about this type of product? Is there a gap in the consumers needs that this product can fill? Is there a specific application that your product fits very well? Can you base the position on the uniqueness of the product, the product quality, or the pricing strategies? Is it possible to position your product based upon opportunities you found after research?
3.6 Strategies - Explain how your marketing programs will support your company's strategic plan - company uniqueness, competitive advantage, adjusting to market conditions, trends and changes.
3.7 Marketing Mix Product: brand name, features/attributes, quality, warranty, labeling, packaging, etc; Promotion: advertising, types of media, sales promotion, personal selling, public
MM522 Marketing Plan Guide
relations, your methods, message/theme, timing, budget, projected results, etc.; Place / Distribution: types of distribution channels, direct, retail, distributors, intermediaries, locations, logistics, motivating the channel partners, level of market coverage, channel distribution challenges, etc.; Price: type of strategy, list price, discounts, bundling, market segment, channels, geography, payment terms and financing options, leasing options, supply/demand, economic/legal considerations, etc.
3.8 Marketing Research - Research methods to be used; Data requirements - information needed, projected results; Research responsibility - Internal, outside agency, purchased data, etc.; Limitations and challenges.
4.0 Controls - Controls help you measure results and indentify any problems or performance variations that may need corrective action.
4.1 Implementation - Set milestones for implementing your plan.
4.2 Marketing Organization - If you are the Chief Marketing Officer, who else is on your support team?
4.3 Contingency Planning - How will you handle difficulties, problems and risks?
5.0 Conclusion - Summarize your marketing plan.
References - Format reference for each of your research sources per APA guidelines (There should be at least one in text citation for each of the references on your reference page).
How good is your Marketing Plan?
Here's the litmus test Hand your Marketing Plan to a trusted friend who has a marketing background. Say to them, "If I gave this to you and asked you to execute this, would you be able to do so?" In effect, would your friend be able to take that which you hand them and -- with full understanding -- be able to drive the Marketing Plan's execution?
You may also want a relative, friend, or associate to read through your marketing plan for spelling and grammatical errors. After working on your marketing plan so diligently, it is always helpful to gain the perspective of a fresh set of eyes.
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Content Analysis


(to demonstrate your understanding of Content Analysis and apply it meaningfully to the interactive section of a current news website or weblog)

TASK: You are t...o do a content analysis of your selected topic or thread (based on a 2011 news issue) by answering the following questions etc.
You will need to describe the news site you have chosen, its functions, its author/s, the intended audience, the types of topics usually covered, the degree of interactivity offered etc. Then, by selecting one current (2011) news topic that has attracted considerable comment and interaction, you should discuss how would you label or classify the way the participants talk about the topic over a period of time (at least several days). Select a series of at least 20, but not more than 50, comments as the basis for your study.This will be a content analysis with an hypothesis etc. You should also consider the idiosyncrasies of the medium that the participants are using and how they deal with them. You should make an assessment of your approach and suggest future directions for this research based on your knowledge of the field from your reading.


You should present your work as a Report and structure it as such by using the following section headings:
Abstract (100 words approx.) summarising the report and its findings
Introduction and Background (250 words approx.) including discussion of news interactivity and review of the relevant literature
Method (100 words approx) detailing the case study, what it aims to address, the approach used etc.
Analysis and Discussion (800 words approx.)
Conclusion (150 words approx.)
References (or Works Consulted)
Appendices including material related to the categorization process, graphs and tables, and a copy of the interactions you are using (at least 20 posts on the same topic or thread)

Remember, it is based on close textual scrutiny. In responding to the Task, you should point out specific examples in the interactions and discuss your findings. Use either MLA or APA style. ( the news your select must be in 2011)
Send me the copy of the texts , Thanks.  more

I would like the writer that did the outline for me, FREDONK, to write this paper for me.

I need a Research Proposal Assignment Paper based on the outline I provided in the attached link. This paper should address the breadth, depth, and application of research design to a topic of business interest. It must be at least 15 pages in length.

Content

Remember that a research proposal describes a plan of work aimed at learning something new or solving a problem. It must have the following sections:

* Problem Statement
* Related Research/Literature Review
* Objectives
* Research Procedure (Methods)
* Population and Sample
* Research Design
* Instrumentation and Data Collection
* Planned Method of Analysis
* Time Schedule
* Resources Needed
* Personnel
* Budget
* Needed assurances/clearances

Format

The paper page-length must be at least 15 pages. and needs to be in APA format in writing course papers. Therefore, the APA rules for formatting, quoting, paraphrasing, citing, and listing of sources are to be followed. Your paper must contain at least five references, and may include Internet sources, books, and professional journals or resources related to the profession.

I want essay for my MBA course in Managing marketing subject . I should choose one product which, my product is Iphone 4 (mobile phone) and I should write 2750 words about it in :
And I should di...scus about new product is coming to the market in future
Introduction(industry. Definition of industry and business. History of industry: Growth patterns within industry)

About the Company
Product description
Environmental analysis(PEST analysis)
SWOT analysis
The new product:-
o Introduction about the new product.
o Discuss the new product development process (Idea generation, Initial screening, Concept development, Business evaluation, Product development, Test Marketing and Product launch).

The new product marketing mix:-
o Discuss all the elements of your new product marketing mix (4p?s or 7p?s based on the type of your new product ? goods/services

Segmentation Analysis :-
o Discuss the different ways that the market is/can be segmented:-
o Profile variables: Demographic, Geographic.
o Behavioural variables: Benefit, Usage, Purchase occasion.
o Motivation: Psychographic, Lifestyle, Activities, AIO (interests, and opinions analysis).

VI. New product targeted segment:-
o Illustrate which segment of the market would you plan to target for your new product, justifying your choice.

VII. New product Positioning:-
o Describe how will you position your product versus the competition within your chosen segment.
o New product perceptual map
o The 4 C?s Model (Clarity /Credibility / Consistency/Competitiveness)


VIII. Conclusion

IX. References

X. Appendices  more

Please write who is very good in research, Thank you,,

Please see the attachment for better view of requirements:


Literature Review Assignment

... Research Articles

(Polit, D.F, 9th ed. pages 112-119)

Review 3 published research articles and write according to instructions in the 2nd and 3rd page ( Use research articles with in the last 5 years )

Use the Literature Review guide on the next page to summarize the literature as
follows:

? Present critique, summarize, evaluate, research reports offering possible reasons
for conflicting findings. Point out strengths and weaknesses of cited research. Identify in
the literature if and how conceptual and theoretical frameworks are used and how key
variables are related and operationalized.

? Provide the reason for the proposed research based on the review of literature.
Include and review existing studies on each variable considered (i.e., what was found,
populations, instruments, etc). What is not known yet? Where is the gap? How will the
proposed study contribute to the literature?

Unless classic works, use research reports published within the last 5 years. Do not
use textbooks, opinion articles, or literature review articles. The use of health statistics, health policy statements, regulatory mandates, and consensus statements may be used to provide support for the significance of the topic. Please describe how the literature was identified (data bases, hey words, limitation) and how articles were selected for inclusion.



















Article # 1

Citation:

Authors:

Title:
Journal:
Year: Volume: Issues: Pages:

Type of Study: Quantitative/Qualitative

Location/Setting:

Variables:

Independent Variable:
Dependent variables
Controlled Variable

Framework Theory:

Study Design:

Sample:

Sample Size:
Sample Methods:
Sample Characteristics:

Data Sources:

Data Collection Measures:
Description of measures:

Procedures:

Data Analysis:

Statistical Tests

Results/ Findings:

Recommendations:
Future Studies

Strengths:

Weakness:  more

PSY Research Design Questions: #2 and #4 require the most thorough answers (about 2 pages each).

1. Give an example (other than the one discussed in the text) of how you could use a case history (study) to study behavior.

2. Compare and contrast meta-analysis and traditional literature review. Read the 2003 meta-analysis by Norman Staunton, "A Meta-Analysis of Adventure Therapy Outcomes" at http://www.wilderdom.com/adventuretherapy/Staunton2003ATMeta-analysis_files/frame.htm#slide0001.htm and write a summary of the goal of the meta-analysis, the method that was used, and the conclusions that were drawn.

3. Discuss some of the common flaws in questionnaire item construction and how they can be handled.

4. Design a simple hypothetical one-factor experiment to test the effects of a drug on learning. Be sure to identify the purpose of each group in your design.

Hello there,

Thank you for helping my final research report. This is a final research report of master degree; you have two weeks to write it, so please produce a high-quality and absolutely ...no plagiarism thesis. The requirements are listing as follow:

1. The research report must be relevance to management and international business, as toward degree is master of management and the major is international business. The University is in Auckland, New Zealand. Just don't make the research looks as if someone who live in America wrote it.

2. Objectives: The author should be able to demonstrate that he/she can evaluate and critique research and theory; should also be able to demonstrate mastery of the knowledge pertinent to some aspect of management or international business that he/she wishes to become an expert in.

3. The research report title is ??A study of relationships between corporate social responsibilities promotion and corporate performance in Multinational Corporations??.

4. Length: Approximately 9500 words. Please do not less than 9500. Words not include references. If need add pages no problem, I can pay. But totally should not over 10000 words.

5. Structure: Abstract, Table of contents, Introduction, Literature Review, Methodology, Analysis, Conclusion, Recommendations, References, Appendices. The emphasis should be on the literature review and analysis, literature review should NOT LESS THAN 3000 words and analysis SHOULD NOT LESS THAN 2000 words.

6. An integrated literature review, identifying the key themes, authors and concepts;

7. An evaluation of the strengths and weakness of the arguments in the literature, and the identification of any gaps in the literature; Development of a framework or model to represent this information.

8. Introduction should include: general overview, problem statement, research question, purpose and significances of study, research method of the study.

9. Methodology should include: reasons of doing the research methodology; approaches to secondary & primary research data; sample selection; data collection & statistical methods (If needed).



10. Conclusion: Clear conclusions and identification of possible future research. Identification of the limitations of the report.

11. References must be APA style. Most references should use academic journal articles as sources. Other than seminal papers, the majority of these papers should be recent (after 1995). Other sources include books, government publications and government website. Should NOT use other webpages as references. It is expected 5% of the report will be direct quotation or paraphrased, and the rest is to be author's ideas, evaluations and comment.Number of Cited sources may around 50 with +/- 10 margin.

12. One of the appendices must include a 500 word reflective journal. This is the author??s reflections on the research process you have completed, and the author??s assessment of the skills you have learnt. The author is asked to consider how these skills may be useful to him/her as a manager.  more

To the researcher
This paper is to prepare a Strategic Staffing Plan to Human Resources at the company called Entergy. The paper will be presented to the Vice President of Human Resources. The spe...cific department, which needs to be analyzed, is Design Engineering Configuration Management. The approximate number of employees and general demographics of the department, office, or are three drafters, one African American male age 52, two American whites males ages 35, one American white supervisor age 54, one American white female Senior Engineer age 49 , one African American male Senior Associate Engineer age 46 .

We have and unlimited budget to invest in a staffing plan in terms of travel, job fairs, advertisement etc. Design Configuration is understaffed by one position however, we must consider those at the early retirement age which must be considered in our staffing strategy.

The posted position for employment is Engineer a very versatile, energetic, capable in with a knowledge of nuclear Engineering plant components.

The Company Entergy for description information that must be discussed but must be summarized is as follows Entergy Mississippi serves approximately 420,000 customers in 45 of Mississippi's 82 counties. The customer numbers break down this way:
Residential 351,274
Commercial 60,338
Industrial 3,915
Governmental 4,036
(As of 12/31/04)
Entergy employs approximately 1,800 people in the state. There are over 670 Entergy retirees living in Mississippi.
At Entergy, we live and work by a system of shared values intended to guide our interactions with our customers, investors, employees, contractors, and vendors. These values are:
Create and Sustain a Safe Work Environment
Possess a Winning Spirit
Focus on Our Customers
Grow the Business
Be Active Team Players
Treat People with Respect
Aggressively Look for Better Ways
Take Actions to Achieve Results
Above All, Act with Integrity.

Focused, Integrated Strategy

Entergy's integrated strategy is to focus on customer service and reliability in its core utility business and to focus on its core capabilities - nuclear generation and wholesale energy services - in pursuit of growth. Entergy links knowledge and experience across its businesses for successful execution of its strategy. And these businesses work together to create value through an integrated wholesale energy strategy.
Consistent performance requires continual adjustment to changing conditions. And the ability to respond to changing conditions requires clear, decisive points of view founded on deep market knowledge and sophisticated analysis.
Entergy executes its strategy with decisive points of view about its business and markets.
Our Strategy Starts With Excellent Service. Maintaining strong customer service and reliability in our utility business is essential to our success.
Credit Quality Matters. Financial integrity is fundamental to strong performance and flexibility in pursuing growth.
We Use A Decisive Point of View to Point the Way in Changing Markets. A successful strategy must see the possibilities in market conditions. Point-of-view execution in a changing marketplace is a key strength of our energy commodity services business.
Our Strategy Brings Together Our Point of View and Our Capabilities. Entergy was early to recognize the growth potential in nuclear generation and has built a leadership position. We can now draw upon the advantages of scale and scope, and the expertise we have developed, to drive continued growth.
The main focus must how to deal with the Overall Staffing Strategy, Who will be responsible for staffing and the company policy on outsourcing. A Job Analysis of the Engineering position must be performed and how we will conduct it.
The Employment laws with the affected position must be discussed. How we will plan for external influences that will affect our staffing effort. How policy plan for forecasting, succession planning or use of temporary employees might be use for future staffing. How will we use a policy plan for internal and external recruitment? How we use a policy plan for internal and external selection. Plan for making an offer and a policy to guard against negligent hiring, orientation of the new employee and finally a plan for retaining employees.  more

**** I HAVE TO MAKE A SUMMARY OF THIS TEXT SO I CAN MAKE A PRESENTATION ABOUT IT, THE SUMMARY IT CAN BE SIMPLE, NOT COMPLICATED SO I CAN BE ABLE TO EXPLAIN IT OUT CLEARLY
THANK YOU *****

...
Realism and the End of the Cold War
WilliamC. Wohlforth
iNlodern realism began as a reaction to the breakdown of the post-World War I international order in the 1930s. The collapse of great-power cooperation after World War II helped establish it as the dominant approach to the theory and practice of international politics in the United States. During the Cold War, efforts to displace realism from its dominant position were repeatedly thwarted by the continued salience of the U.S.-Soviet antagonism: although indirect, the con-
nection between events and theory was undeniable. Now, the U.S.-Soviet antagonism is history. Suddenly, unexpectedly, and
with hardly a shot fired in anger, Russian power has been withdrawn from the Elbe to the Eurasian steppe. A central question faces students and practitioners of international politics. Do the rapid decline and comparatively peaceful collapse of the Soviet state, and with it the entire postwar international order, discredit the realist approach?
Scholars have answered this question in two ways. Most argue that the events of the late 1980s and early 1990s utterly confound realism's expectations, and call into question its relevance for understanding the post-Cold War world.' Others-realist and non-realist alike-disagree, maintaining that the
WilliamC. Wohlforthis Assistant Professorat the Departmentof Politics, Princeton University. He is the editorofWitnesses to the End of the Cold War(Baltimore,Md.:TheJohnsHopkinsUniversityPress, forthcoming 1995).
I am grateful to Chip Blacker, David Dessler, Lynn Eden, David Holloway, Oliver Meier, Michael McFaul, Sarah Mendelson, Jon Mercer, and Pascal Venneson for their most helpful comments on earlier drafts. I wrote this article while a Social Science Fellow at Stanford University's Center for International Security and Arms Control. My thanks to the Center and the Carnegie Corporation ofNewYorkforsupportingmyfellowship.
1.SeeCharlesW.Kegley,Jr.,"TheNeoidealist MomentinInternationalStudies?RealistMythsand the New International Realities," InternationalStudies Quarterly,Vol. 37, No. 2 (June 1993), pp. 131- 147, and the sources cited therein; Richard Ned Lebow, "The Long Peace, the End of the Cold War, and the Failure of Realism," and Rey Koslowski and Friedrich Kratochwil, "Understanding Change in International Relations: The Soviet Empire's Demise and the International System," both in IniternationaOlrganization,Vol.48,No.2(Spring1994);FriedrichKratochwil,"TheEmbarrassment of Changes: Neo-Realism as the Science of Realpolitikwithout Politics," Review of International Studies,Vol.19,No. 1(January1993),pp. 63-80;JohnLewis Gaddis, "InternationalRelations Theory and the End of the Cold War,"InternationalSecurity, Vol. 17, No. 3 (Winter 1992/93), pp. 5-58; Thomas Risse-Kappen and Richard Ned Lebow, "International Relations Theory and the Transfor- mation of the International System," draft introduction (September 1993) for Risse-Kappen and
Itiernational Sectirity,Winter 1994/95 (Vol. 19, No. 3), pp. 91-129 ? 1995 by the President and Fellows of Harvard College and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
91
InternationalSecurity 19:3 | 92
post-1989 transformation of international politics is not an appropriate test for theory. The end of the Cold War,they argue, was "merely a single data point." Even if it is inconsistent with realism it is insufficient to falsify it, because international relations theories are capable only of predicting patterns of be- havior; they cannot make point predictions. And many scholars are pessimistic about the capacity of social science theory to explain unique and complex historical events involving revolutionary change. Therefore, our evaluation of theory should look to future patterns rather than past events.2
Both answers are wrong. Realist theories are not invalidated by the post-1989 transformation of world politics. Indeed, they explain much of the story. Real- ism is rich and varied, and cannot be limited just to structural realism, which deals poorly with change.3 Many criticisms of realism based on the post-1989 system transformation contrast the most parsimonious form of realism, Kenneth Waltz's structural realism, with the richest and most context-specific alternative explanations derived from liberalism, the new institutionalism, or constructivism. This is not a fair or convincing approach to the evaluation of theories.
Instead, a thoroughly realist explanation of the Cold War's end and the relatively peaceful nature of the Soviet Union's decline that relies entirely on the propositions of pre-1989 theory is in many ways superior to rich explana- tions based on other theoretical traditions. But to carry on as if there are no lessons in this series of events for international relations theory in general and realist theories in particular is as indefensible intellectually as the claim that
Lebow, eds., International Relations Theory and the End of The Cold War, forthcoming; Richard Rosecrance and Arthur A. Stein, "Beyond Realism: The Study of Grand Strategy," in Rosecrance and Stein, eds., The Domestic Bases of Grand Strategy (Ithaca, N.Y: Cornell University Press, 1993). Other important works in the post-Cold War debate are discussed below.
2. On theory and revolutionary change, see Peter J. Katzenstein, "International Relations Theory and the Analysis of Change," in Ernst-Otto Czempiel and James N. Rosenau eds., GlobalChanges and TheoreticalChallenges:Approachesto WorldPolitics for the 1990s (Lexington, Mass.: D.C. Heath, 1989). Lebow attributes the "data point" quotation to a "prominent participant" in a 1991 confer- ence on international relations theory in Lebow, "TheLong Peace, the End of the Cold War,and the Failure of Realism," pp. 251-252. The two most important collections on international theory published after the Cold War look almost entirely to the future (especially of the European Union and NATO) to evaluate competing theories: Sean M. Lynn-Jones and Steven E. Miller, eds., The Cold Warand After: Prospectsfor Peace-An International Security Reader(Cambridge: MIT Press, 1993); and David A. Baldwin, ed., Neorealismand Neoliberalism:TheContemporaryDebate(New York: Columbia University Press, 1993).
3. Kenneth N. Waltz, Theoryof InternationalPolitics (New York:McGraw-Hill, 1979). For analyses, see Robert Keohane, ed., Neorealismand its Critics (New York:Columbia University Press, 1986); and Barry Buzan, Charles Jones, and Richard Little, The Logic of Anarchy:Neorealismto Structural Realism(New York:Columbia University Press, 1993).
Realismand the End of the Cold War| 93
the post-1989 transformation single-handedly invalidates any and all realist theories. As critics of realism rightly note, the events of the last half-decade highlight the indeterminacy of realist predictions about state behavior. Realist theories can be made more determinate, but only in ex post explanation rather than ex ante prediction. Realist theories are terribly weak. They are too easy to confirm and too hard to falsify. They do not come close to the ideal of scientific theory. Their strength is only evident when they are compared to the alterna- tives, which suffer from similar or worse indeterminacy but do not possess comparable explanatory power. The proper attitude toward the realist ap- proach, even on the part of its defenders, ought to be reluctant acceptance conditioned on a determination to improve it, or to dispose of it if something better comes along.
I perform four basic tasks in this article. First, I discuss briefly the intellectual challenge presented by the post-1989 changes in world politics. What exactly should we expect this series of events to tell us about international relations theories? How much should we expect such theories to tell us about these events? This issue surely ought to lie at the center of any assessment of the Soviet collapse, but thus far it has not. Second, I outline the realist explanation of recent change in world politics that I elaborate upon further throughout the article. Third, I examine the many critiques of realism based on the end of the Cold War and the Soviet collapse: (a) predictive failure; (b) lack of correlation between independent and dependent variables; and (c) important patterns of state behavior defying realist expectations and explanations. Finally, I suggest some preliminary lessons that ought to be drawn from the post-1989 experi- ence, and outline their implications for further research.
The Cold War'sEnd and Social Science Theory
Like the French Revolution or the decline and fall of Rome, the Cold War's end is an event whose importance commands attention but whose complexity frustrates explanation. Few who took up the study of international politics during the Cold War will be content with the notion that the waning of that conflict is simply a single observation no more important than hundreds of others.
And like other complex events in history, the end of the Cold War is unique. The precise set of antecedent conditions and the precise nature of the outcome never occurred before and are exceedingly unlikely ever to recur. So the case cannot be explained in the ideal-scientific manner, as an instance of a general
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law. That is, the Cold War's end cannot easily be characterized as a type of outcome generally associated with a particular set of antecedent conditions: "Given such-and-such conditions, international systems tend to be trans- formed; since those conditions obtained in 1987, the Cold War ended as a result."4 There are simply too many important novel elements in the Cold War story and too few other events even roughly comparable for an explanation of this type to work.
However, if we concentrate on the event itself, we face the familiar problem of too many variables and too few independent observations. International relations theories are almost never monocausal. The claim is rarely "A, not B, caused E," but rather "both A and B caused E but A was more important."5 Establishing whether nuclear weapons, the balance of power, domestic politics, liberal values, the personalities of leaders, or other factors were truly "most important" in bringing the Cold War to an end is a predictably inconclusive business. In the language of statistics, the researcher faces negative degrees of freedom. If we accept the statistician's view of causality, causal inference cannot be made on the basis of negative degrees of freedom, so the causes of a single outcome cannot be established, and a single outcome will be compatible with numerous theories.6
The problem is clear: weak theories that at best can make probabilistic predictions confront a single, complex, but fatefully important event. The solution is twofold. First, it is necessary to disaggregate the event.7 Elements of the larger event may be susceptible to general explanation. Different theories may explain different regularities that came together to produce the end of the Cold War.At the very least, disaggregation simplifies analysis and clarifies the
4. The impossibility of applying the "covering-law" model to the explanation of complex or "aggregative" historical events is discussed in Ernest Nagel, The Structure of Science:Problemsin the Logicof ScientificExplanation(New York:Harcourt, Brace and World, 1961), pp. 568-575; and Carl G. Hempel, Aspects of Scientific Explanation (New York: Free Press, 1965), chap 12. David Dessler's paper, "Scientific Realism is Just Positivism Reconstructed," prepared for delivery at the annual meeting of the International Studies Association, Washington, D.C., March 28-April 1, 1994, alerted me to these sources.
5. See Nagel, Structure of Science, pp. 584-588, for the many ways one cause can be said to be "more important" than others. 6. Degrees of freedom are the number of observations minus the number of independent variables minus one. We are all familiar with this logic. Was it worn spark plugs or a dirty air filter that caused our poor gas mileage? We'll never know if we do both repairs simultaneously and only measure gas mileage in one period. We need at least three observations (one with no change; one with new plugs and old filter; and one with old plugs and new filter). But our confidence in any finding would be increased by further observations, to control for different driving conditions, weather, number of passengers, or types of gasoline used.
7. This solution is proposed by Nagel, Structure of Science; and Hempel, Aspects of Scientific Explanation.
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dependent variable. Second, having selected a piece of the puzzle whose explanation may fall under the purview of a given theory, it is still necessary to go "beyond correlations," in David Dessler's phrase, and toward "a direct examination of a theory's postulated generative processes."8 The only way to evaluate theory in each instance is to trace the process through which the posited cause produced (or influenced) the outcome. Having posited a cause, and shown a correlation, it will still be necessary to show empirically the mechanism that connects cause to effect.9
For the purposes of international theory, it is reasonable to separate the great-power element of the whole case: dramatic change in Soviet security policy; the emergence of a deep detente between the superpowers after 1987; Moscow's peaceful acquiescence in regime changes in East-Central Europe, and the subsequent collapse of its alliance and the reunification of Germany in 1989 and 1990. These events do not constitute the entire story, but they are an important part of it that is particularly relevant to international relations theory. Realist theories of all stripes highlight a single independent variable: the bal- ance of power. They describe recent international change primarily as the result of declining relative Soviet power conditioned by the global distribution of power. For the purpose of evaluating realism, then, much post-1987 interna- tional change can be defined as a single series of events, linked by a single generative cause. A causal analysis of that link implies close examination of the influence of power on great-power decision-making during the Cold War endgame.
Strictly speaking, no particular finding about the Cold War's end will suffice to "falsify" an entire research program, such as realism. For a single series of events to constitute a critical test of a theory, it must not only be inconsistent with the theory but be unambiguously ruled out by it.10However it may
8. David Dessler, "Beyond Correlations: Toward a Causal Theory of War,"InternationalStudies Quarterly,Vol. 35, No. 3, (September 1991), pp. 337-355. 9. The "scientific" status of analyzing causal mechanisms is disputed among philosophers and methodologists of social science. Cf. Dessler, ibid.; Alexander L. George and Timothy J.McKeown, "Case Studies and Theories of Organizational Decision Making," in Advances in InformationProc- essing in Organizations,Vol. 2 (Greenwich, Conn.: JAI Press, 1985); and Alexander L. George, "Case Studies and Theory Development: The Method of Structured, Focused Comparison," in Paul Gordon Lauren, ed., Diplomacy:New Approachesin History, Theoryand Policy (New York:The Free Press, 1979), with Gary King, Robert 0. Keohane and Sidney Verba, Designing Social Inquiny: Scientific Inferencein Qualitative Research(Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1994), who maintain that causality can only be understood statistically, and therefore that "process tracing" is merely another method of increasing the sample.
10. See Karl R. Popper, Conjecturesand Refutations:The Growthof ScientificKnowledge(New York: Harper & Row, 1963), p. 117. I am indebted to David Dessler for helping me navigate Popper's arguments.
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appear to critics of realism, realist theories do not rule out an event-series involving the emergence of deep superpower d6tente and the relatively peace- ful contraction of Soviet power. But the importance of the exercise goes beyond formal arguments about theory-testing. If realism can be shown to have noth- ing to say about the Cold War's end, its relevance to the postwar world can be called into doubt. And a rigorous search for the causal mechanisms at work in important cases adds to our historical understanding. The clash of theories over the explanation of important events leads to a better understanding of those events.
An Outline of a Realist Explanation
Recent changes in world politics can be explained by realist hypotheses, de- rived from classical realism and from theories of hegemonic rivalry and power- transition, which have been obscured in recent years by the more influential structural variant.11The account I offer is simply an extension of the general realist system of explanation to a specific case with inevitably unique features that could not be anticipated and probably will not recur. Its power derives from the fact that it captures central causal relationships and is connected to a set of theories that have proven their utility in a great many different instances.
The Cold Warwas caused by the rise of Soviet power and the fear this caused in the West. The end of the Cold War was caused by the relative decline in Sov.iet power and the reassurance this gave the West. Stalin, Khrushchev, and Brezhnev may have had many reasons for competing with the United States, ranging from genuine fear to ideological conviction, but a necessary condition for competition was their perception that they had the capabilityto do so. Gorbachev may have had numerous reasons for seeking to withdraw from the rivalry with the United States, but a necessary precondition was the perception of reducedcapabilityto continue competing.
Realists of all kinds view change in state behavior as adaptation to external constraints conditioned by changes in relative power. The best way to make
11. This kind of analysis is applied to the entire Cold War in Wohlforth, The Elusive Balance:Power and PerceptionsDuring the Cold War (Ithaca, N.Y: Cornell University Press, 1993). The only other effort to apply realist ideas systematically to an analysis of the Cold War's end that I have located is Kenneth Oye's "Explaining the End of the Cold War:Morphological and Behavioral Adaptations to the Nuclear Peace," draft chapter (December 1992) for Risse-Kappen and Lebow, eds., Interna- tionalRelationsTheoryandtheEndofTheColdWar.IshareOye's emphasis on relative Soviet decline, but focus less on nuclear weapons, while introducing new arguments for the absence of war.
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sense of the recent international change and to think about the future of world politics is to view the Cold War as a credible but ultimately failed Soviet challenge to U.S. hegemony"2 What made the Cold War era seem so different from earlier eras in world history was the reduced uncertainty about alliance choices and the consequent stability of central power relations over four dec- ades. The great popularity of structural realism was very largely due to the fact that it seemed to explain this state of affairs. An alternative explanation, truer to classical balance-of-power theory, is that the Cold War was explained by the Soviet Union's near-domination of Eurasia.13 Of course, the real degree of Russia's power and threat was arguable, but it was clearer in the Cold War than during any other time of peace. Moscow's position resembled France's in 1813 or Germany's in 1917 and 1941, thus accounting for the stability of the opposing coalition. This was a novel situation, and it came to an end in novel ways.
There are three keys to understanding the peculiarities of the Cold War's end and the Soviet Union's sudden but peaceful collapse that have not been ad- dressed heretofore. First, decision-makers'assessments of power are what matters. For any balance-of-power theory to explain state behavior, it must specify the mechanism through which capabilities are translated into actions. That mecha- nism can only be the assessments of the people who act on behalf of states. One reason balance-of-power theories cannot make deterministic predictions about state behavior is that so many factors can influence assessments of capabilities. As Hans Morgenthau argued almost a half century ago, power is composed of a complex combination of material and non-material factors. Even if, unlike Morgenthau, we distinguish carefully between power as influenceand power as capabilities,the basic insight holds.14 Capability contains vitally im-
12. Distinguishing features of works on hegemonic rise and decline include a focus on hierarchy as an ordering principle, hegemonic rivalry and power transitions. See Robert Gilpin, Warand Change in WorldPolitics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1980); A.F.K. Organski, World Politics (New York:Knopf, 1968); Karl Deutsch, TheAnalysis of IinternationiaRlelationis(Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1968); Organski and Jacek Kugler, The WarLedger(Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1980); and Michael Howard, TheCausesof Wars(Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1984), chap. 1. For an effort to formalize and test power-transition theory, see Woosang Kim and James D. Morrow, "When do Power Shifts Lead to War?"AmericanJouirnalof Political Science, Vol. 36, No. 4 (November 1992), pp. 896-922.
13. For theoretical analyses of balance-of-power theory that powerfully explicate this view, see R. Harrison Wagner, "What was Bipolarity?" InterniationalOrganization,Vol. 47, No. 1 (Winter 1993), pp. 77-106; and Wagner, "Peace, War,and the Balance of Power," AmericanPolitical ScienceReviezv, Vol. 88, No. 3 (September 1994), pp. 593-607.
14. Hans Morgenthau, PoliticsAmonigNations:TheStruiggleforPowerandPeace(New York:Knopf, 1948), Part 3. I define power as,resources throughout this article. For empirical and conceptual
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portant non-material elements that make it very difficult or even impossible to measure. Rational decision-makers may revise assessments of capabilities dra- matically and suddenly when confronted with new information about non-ma- terial elements of capability, even when material measures change only slightly Crude quantitative indicators of capabilities cannot accurately represent deci- sion-makers' assessments.
The corollary of a perceptual approach to power is the realization that expectations inform policy. All policies are future-oriented. All decisions are bets on the future. A decision to reform, retrench, or go to war reflects expec- tations about future trends and assessments of the likely effect of today's policies on tomorrow's distribution of relative power. Theories of hegemonic rivalry suggest that during power transitions, sets of expectations that make decisions for war seem attractive are likely to occur. As in the case of assess- ments of power, it is difficult to make deterministic predictions about decision- makers' expectations in any case. How any state reacts to perceived decline will be determined by decision-makers' expectations. Obviously, if they con- clude that decline is reversible, they will be less likely to opt for risky, forceful solutions to decline and more likely to choose retrenchment and reform. Robert Gilpin argued in 1981 that the two superpowers' basic ideological faith in the future was one of the factors that stabilized the Cold War.15What is striking about the Cold War's end is how very late in the game the Soviet leaders clung to this faith.
Second, declining challengersare more likely than declining hegemons to try to retrenchandreformratherthanoptforpreventivewar.Itis vital to note that in the 1980s, the Soviet Union was not a declining hegemon, but a declining chal- lenger. From 1917 onward, the Soviet Union stood formally for revision of the international status quo. Its real commitment to revisionism varied, and as its relative power grew its revisionist impulse assumed increasingly typical great- power forms. But the country's post-1945 hegemonic status and consequent conservatism in the Central European region should not be confused with global hegemony. Worldwide, successive Soviet leaderships chafed against an American-dominated system. They never doubted who the real hegemon was.
analysis of how decision-makers assess power, see Aaron L. Friedberg, The WearyTitan:Britainand the Experienceof Relative Decline, 1895-1905 (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1988); Wohlforth, Elusive Balance;and Wohlforth, "The Perception of Power: Russia in the Pre-1914 Balance," WorldPolitics, Vol. 39, No. 3 (April 1987), pp. 353-381.
15. Gilpin, Warand Change,p. 240. For more on the relationship between risk attitudes and the likelihood of war in power transitions, see Kim and Morrow, "When do Power Shifts lead to War?"
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Theories of hegemonic rivalry do not make deterministic predictions about individual states' reactions to decline. But they do suggest that hegemons are more likely to react violently to decline than either a challenger that never became powerful enough to contemplate taking over leadership, or a state not directly contending for leadership. For all such theories, the danger point, when war is most likely (though not inevitable), is a transitionin relative position, not the rapid decline of a challenger. Soviet power rose and fell without reaching such a transition point. Theorists of hegemonic war, perhaps under Thucydides' spell, tended to concentrate on dynamic challengers and mori- bund hegemons. They always thought of the problem of peaceful change as one of accommodating the demands of a rising challenger. In the 1950s and 1960s, the Soviet Union seemed to fit the bill. But roles were mixed in the Cold War endgame. Rigid, Spartan Soviet Russia was the moribund challenger, and dynamic, Athenian America the rising defender.
The third key is that sudden decline or civil strife on the losing side of a struggle is less destabilizingglobally than such decline or strife on the winning side.'6 Internal strife on the losing side ratifies the previously-existing power relationship; it merely confirms what political actors knew to be the case just prior to the advent of the strife. Thus, it provides no incentive to renew the struggle. Civil strife on the winning side, of course, gives the losing party an incentive to carry on with the struggle. This helps to account not only for the relatively peaceful nature of Soviet decline and collapse, but also for the widespread obsession (both in the West and in Moscow) with U.S. decline during the Cold War.If we accept that the Soviet Union was behind the United States in power terms, then Soviet rise and U.S. decline were much more dangerous in terms of power-transition theory than vice-versa. Unlike structural realism, which in- sists on seeing the two superpowers as identical "sensible duopolists,"17 this explanation sees the Soviet Union as occupying a quite different international position than United States and expects different consequences from changes in its relative power.
It follows that the basic hierarchy of the international system-with the United States at the top-has not only not been challenged by the Soviet collapse, but has been decisively reinforced by it."8This leads to a portrayal of
16. This is merely an extension of the logic in Geoffrey Blainey, TheCausesof War,(New York:The Free Press, 1973), p. 82. 17. Waltz, Theoryof InternationalPolitics, p. 203. 18. This conclusion resembles the views of Marxist world-system theorists. See Richard Herrmann, "International Relations Theory and the End of the Cold War,"draft chapter (July 1993) for Lebow and Risse-Kappen, InternationalRelations Theory.It is important to stress, however, that the realist
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the near future of world politics as strikingly different from that suggested by structural realism. While structural realists focus on the war-proneness of the emerging multipolarity, theories of hegemonic rivalry highlight the relative stability and order that the existence of a clear hierarchy of prestige and power will impart to great-power relations. In short, there are (non-structural) realist reasons for regarding the near future of great-power relations relatively opti- mistically, even ignoring such important factors as the existence of nuclear weapons and the unprecedented popularity of liberal and democratic values.
Realistsand TheirCritics
Together, these non-structural realist arguments help explain change in Soviet security policy, the consequent emergence of deep superpower detente, the Soviet Union's adoption of reform and retrenchment rather than violent oppo- sition to decline, and the ability of the international system to accommodate unprecedented power and territorial changes without great-power war. Objec- tions to such an explanation can be anticipated by examining the post-Cold War debate on international theory Below, I examine three lines of criticism: (1) egregious predictive failure; (2) lack of correlation between independent and dependent variables; (3) state behavior inconsistent with realist predictions, including the Soviet withdrawal from East-Central Europe, the high levels of great-power cooperation, and a potentially "critical" absence of great-power war. Many of these criticisms point to areas where realist theories must either improve or make more modest claims. Yet most of them are most damaging to the structural version of realism, whose inability to deal adequately with international change is acknowledged even by its most ardent defenders.
FAILURE TO PREDICT Rational actors learn from predictive failures. One can reject the premise that prediction is a necessary condition of explanation yet still conclude that wide- spread failure to anticipate vitally important events even in general terms should cause us to wonder about the theories on which expectations were based."9
explanation proposed here regards military power, prestige, and security, and thus the U.S.-Soviet rivalry, as central, while world-system theorists see the Soviet challenge as peripheral. See, for example, Immanuel Wallerstein, Geopoliticsand Geoculture:Essays on the Changing World-System (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, Edition de la Maison des Sciences de L'Homme, 1992), chap. 1, who continues to see post-1989 systems changes as results of U.S. decline.
19. For a general critique of international relations theories, based on their failure to anticipate the Cold War's end, see Gaddis, "International Relations Theory"; on realism in particular, see Kra-
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Most scrutiny has been directed at structural realism. The main charge against this theory is that it not only failed to anticipate change, but led those who believed in it to expect the opposite: stability To the extent that structural realism sought to explain the Cold War by reference to bipolarity, this criticism appears justified. Ambiguity surrounds the definition of bipolarity, but its most common meaning is the concentration of capabilities in two powers, in this case the United States and the Soviet Union.20 In 1988, Waltz argued that the Cold War was "firmly rooted in the structure of postwar international politics, and will last as long as that structure endures."21 It is difficult to avoid the conclusion that any reasonably intelligent consumer of Waltz's theory in 1988 would have expected the Cold War to last as long as the bipolar structure itself. The Cold War ended over the course of the next two years; however, according to Waltz in 1993, "bipolarity endures, but in an altered state." In short, the Cold War's end caused an important amendment to be added to the theory: while bipolarity leads to Cold War, "altered bipolarity" leads to detente.22
However accurate, such criticisms miss Waltz's main contention: that a theory of international politics cannot predict state behavior or explain inter- national change.23Waltz and his followers often employed the theory to discuss Cold War statecraft, but its core predictions are only two: balances will form;
tochwil, "The Embarrassment of Changes"; and Lebow, "The Long Peace, the End of the Cold War, and the Failure of Realism." For a helpful discussion of the relative importance of prediction in assessing theory, see David Dessler, "Explanation, Prediction, Critique: The Aims of Rationalistic International Relations Theory," College of William and Mary, unpublished ms., May 1994.
20. That was how it was seen by the postwar realists in opposition to whom Waltz first articulated his arguments about bipolarity. See Hans Morgenthau, Politics Among Nations, chap. 19; Morgen- thau discusses the new postwar structure of power in the 1948 edition of his classic text, although he does not use the term "bipolarity"; John H. Herz, InternationalPolitics in the Atomic Age (New York: Columbia University Press, 1959), chap. 7; and Kenneth Waltz, "The Stability of a Bipolar World," Daedalus (Summer 1964), pp. 881-909. On the vexing ambiguities surrounding the concept, see Wagner, "What was Bipolarity?" Ned Lebow also develops a penetrating critique in "The Long Peace, the End of the Cold War,and the Failure of Realism."
21. Waltz, "The Origins of War in Neorealist Theory," in Robert I. Rotberg and Theodore K. Rabb, eds., The Origin and Prevention of Major Wars (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989), p. 52. That structure would likely endure for some time because Waltz, like most international relations theorists, believed that "national rankings change slowly. War aside, the economic and other bases of power change little more rapidly." In addition, "the barriers to entering the super- power club have never been higher or more numerous." Waltz, Theonjof InternationalPolitics, p. 177.
22. Waltz, "The Emerging Structure of International Politics," InternationalSecurity,Vol. 18, No. 2 (Fall 1993), pp. 48-52. 23. "The behavior of states and statesmen," Waltz states, "is indeterminate." Theoryof International Politics, p. 68; "Changes in, and transformation of, systems originate not in the structure of a system but in its parts. Systems change, or are transformed, depending on the resources and aims of their units and on the fates that befall them." Waltz, "Reflections on Theoryof InternationalPolitics: A Response to my Critics," in Keohane, Neorealismannd its Critics, p. 343.
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and bipolar systems are less war-prone than multipolar ones, due to reduced uncertainty about alliance choices. The latter prediction seems borne out by the history of the Cold War and even its end. The bipolar structure, it could be argued, was so primed for peace that even German reunification and Soviet dissolution did not upset the great powers' repose. The continued tendency of all the great powers to bandwagon with the United States after the Soviet collapse does contradict the theory's prediction of balancing. But Waltz always allowed that unit causes could delay system incentives for prolonged periods. The epistemological modesty of the theory renders it hard to criticize (and to falsify).
Theories of hegemonic rivalry clearly benefit in this instance from their focus on change. They urge the reader to think of any international system as temporary, and to look for the underlying causes of change, which accumulate slowly but are realized in rare, concentrated bursts. They encourage scholars and policy-makers to be on the lookout for gaps between the capabilities of states and the demands placed upon them by their international roles. It is thus no surprise that the predictions that look best in hindsight came from people who thought in these terms. An example is the sociologist Randall Collins, who identified early the Soviet geopolitical overstretch as the basic harbinger of international change. Relying on a theory whose central variables were relative capability and geopolitical position, he began predicting the collapse of the Soviet Union in the late 1970s, noting that the loss would result not mainly from ethnic revolt or a single major war but from the geopolitical exhaustion of the imperial center and "a loss of political confidence" among the Russians.24
The main criticism of theories of hegemonic rivalry is that none generated the kind of explanation I suggested above-even speculatively-before the fact.25In general, realists of all types tended to associate large-scale interna-
24. Randall Collins, WeberianSociologicalTheory(New York:Cambridge University Press, 1986), chaps. 7, 8. See also Randall Collins, "Some Principles of Long TermSocial Change: The Territorial Power of States," in Louis Kriesberg, ed., Researchin SocialMovements,Conflictsand Change,Vol. 1 (Greenwich, Conn.: JAI Press, 1978), pp. 1-34; Randall Collins and David Waller, "What Theories Predicted the State Breakdowns and Revolutions of the Soviet Bloc?" in Louis Kriesberg and David R. Segal, eds., Researchin Social Movements, Conflictsand Change,Vol. 14 (Greenwich, Conn.: JAI Press, 1992); and Ted Hopf's letter, "Getting the End of the Cold War Wrong," InternationalSecurity, Vol. 18, No. 2 (Fall 1993), pp. 202-208, which alerted me to Collins's work. Another, much better known prediction is Andrei Amalrik, Will the Soviet Union Survive until 1984? (New York:Harper and Row, 1970), whose scenario of collapse centers on the Soviet leadership's resort to a diversion- ary war with China.
25. 1 first put together the argument sketched out above in the spring of 1990, after the collapse of Moscow's outer empire, but before the collapse of its inner one. William C. Wohlforth, "Gor- bachev's Foreign Policy: From New Thinking to Decline," in Wolfgang Danspeckgruber, ed., EmergingDimensions of EuropeanSecurity Policy (Boulder, Colo.: Westview, 1991), pp. 47-62.
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tional change with war. In particular, those who did contemplate Soviet decline in the context of the Cold War tended to assume that Moscow would not face decline gracefully.26The reasons for these assumptions are not intrinsic to the theory. There is no barrier in the theory that prevents one from pulling together various strands and constructing a scenario for the relatively peaceful ending of the Cold War rivalry Many theorists of power transition and hegemonic rivalry themselves thought that retreat to more defensible positions and do- mestic reform were quite often the best strategies for a declining state. Indeed, those who thought that the United States was overextended urged precisely such a course on the U.S. government.
One explanation, as Ted Hopf argues, is that curiously little effort was devoted to thinking about how the Cold Warmight end.27At least one reason for that neglect is the difficulty of assessing power. The debate focused like a laser beam on U.S. decline, even as the Soviet Union was entering the initial stages of its final crisis. While many did identify a gap between Soviet capa- bilities and commitments, very few shared Collins's dire assessment. Most international relations theorists in the 1980s relied on the dominant assessment then prevalent among Sovietologists: the Soviet Union was in deep trouble, but a very long way from collapse. That Sovietological assessment mirrored the prevalent mood in Moscow's policy-making circles. The possibility of precipi- tous Soviet decline seemed so remote and so speculative up until 1989 that little analytical energy was devoted to working through scenarios involving a declining challenger in the context of a prolonged great-power rivalry.28
26. On the association of war and change see, for a small sampling of quotations, Gilpin, Warand Change, p. 15; A.F.K. Organski, WorldPolitics (New York: Knopf, 1985), p. 333; Robert Jervis, The Meaning of the Nuclear Revolution (Ithaca, N.Y: Cornell University Press), p. 34; J.W. Burton, InternationalRelations:A GeneralTheory(Cambridge, Mass.: Cambridge University Press, 1967), pp. 76-77. In Theoryof InternationalPolitics, Waltz discusses various roads to structural transformation without explicitly connecting them to war; however, he insisted that the only structural transfor- mation in history, from multi- to bipolarity, was caused by World War II. For mid-1980s thinking on Soviet decline, see Kurt M. Campbell, "Prospects and Consequences of Soviet Decline," in Joseph S. Nye, Graham T. Allison, and Albert Carnesale, eds., Fateful Visions: Avoiding Nuclear Catastrophe(Cambridge, Mass.: Ballinger, 1988); and Paul M. Kennedy, TheRise and Fall of the Great Powers (New York:Random House, 1987), esp. pp. 488-514.
27. Hopf, "Getting the End of the Cold War Wrong." 28. As Raymond Aron remarked to Hedley Bull at a 1982 conference, Soviet decline was "the most important and indeed most neglected question in contemporary international relations scholar- ship." Cited by Campbell, "Prospects and Consequences of Soviet Decline," p. 153. On the stability assumption in Sovietology, see Thomas Remington, "Sovietology and System Stability,"in Post-So- viet Affairs,Vol. 8, No. 3 (July-September 1992), pp. 239-269. Other good post-mortems on Sovie- tology include the articles by Robert Tucker and George Breslauer in the same issue; Alexander Dallin, "Causes of the Collapse pf the USSR," Post-SovietAffairs,Vol. 8, No. 4 (December 1992), pp. 279-302; Peter Rutland, "Sovietology: Notes for a Post-Mortem," The National Interest, Vol. 31 (Spring 1993), pp. 109-123.
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It is not surprising, then, that when people did contemplate Soviet decline or large-scale international change they took the easiest intellectual route: induction. That is, episodes of rapid international change appeared to be associated historically with war, and empires rarely accepted their decline with graceful resignation.29 Major international change and precipitous Soviet de- cline seemed remote enough that writers felt it sufficient to note in passing that analogous events in the past had usually been accompanied by large-scale violence. They did not ponder at length whether the set of perceptions and expectations that had accompanied such violence in the past was really as likely to appear in this instance.
This inductive association of war and major change is an important reason so many scholars failed to prepare intellectually for the transformation of world politics that occurred after 1989. Most analysts assumed, implicitly or explicitly, that the relevant political actors themselves would be constrained by the association of war and change, and precisely for that reason believed that change was most likely to be marginal in the near term. Fearing that radical change would raise the specter of war, the key political actors would endeavor to moderate their behavior in a rational cost-benefit calculation. So all the indications of new Soviet perceptions of power and interest, and of impending revolution in Eastern Europe, that stand out so clearly in hindsight were balanced at the time by the feeling that the magnitude of change would be managed by decision-makers apprehensive about potential instability and war. The iaotable feature of those analysts now regarded to have "got it most right" about the Soviet Union's fate is their dispassionate consideration of violence as the road to Soviet dissolution.
If scholars had thought more about the problem of how the Cold War system might end, they would not have met insuperable theoretical barriers blocking rough anticipation of the likely nature of international change. Indeed, they might have overcome the danger that always accompanies historical induction: selection bias, whereby scholars highlighted only those cases of international
29. See Jack Levy, "Declining Power and the Preventive Motivation for War," WorldPolitics, Vol. 40, No. 1 (April 1988), p. 97. The association between war and change is hard to measure, but Paul F. Diehl and Gary Goertz, "TerritorialChange and Militarized Conflict," Journalof ConflictResolu- tion, Vol. 32, No. 1 (March 1988), pp. 103-122, do find that if territorial change is "important" and "among the major powers" it tends to be associated with war. Also relevant here is: Jack Levy, War in the Modern GreatPower System, 1495-1975 (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1983). Note that it usually takes a war to convince contemporaries and scholars in retrospect that a state has either become or ceased to be a "great power." See Levy, Warin the Modern GreatPower System, p. 24.
Realismand the End of the Cold War | 105
change and national decline that were associated with violence, and down- played or ignored other cases.30 Because they were accustomed to thinking about the Cold War in terms of rising Soviet power and precarious U.S. hegemony (or, in the 1980s, in terms of two "sensible duopolist" superpowers adjusting to a bipolar structure) they were not inclined to sift the historical record for evidence about declining challengers.
However, if more analytical energy had been devoted to thinking through scenarios of systemic change, exponents of both structural realism and theories of hegemonic rivalry might have focused upon the unique features of the post-World War II international system in terms of both types of theory. For structural realists, bipolarity was a world-historical first. For hegemony theo- rists, never before had a challenger come so close to dominating Eurasia in peacetime, and never had such a challenger begun to decline well before the main status-quo states. Both theories thus should have led to the suspicion that change might be different this time around, even apart from such important new features as nuclear weapons.
The predictive failure of realist theories, including those that self-consciously addressed the problem of change in world politics, was linked to the difficulty of assessing power. The gap between a state's capabilities and its international role is easy to identify in hindsight, after capabilities have been put to some test. Before the fact, however, the existence or significance of such a gap will always be a matter of speculation. Any capabilities-based theory which recog- nizes that capabilities contain significant non-material elements must recognize the impossibility of making precise power assessments.
THE CORRELATION BETWEEN "POWER" AND "CHANGE" Realists see change as the result of the rise and decline of states' relative power conditioned by the nature of the overall distribution of capabilities. A structural realist account of the Cold War's end would feature bipolarity, whose simplic- ity and ease of management might explain the comparatively peaceful nature of the change. Theories of hegemonic rivalry would highlight the U.S.-domi- nated hierarchy of world politics in explaining the same outcome. For either version, relative decline explains the change in Soviet behavior and interests that was the necessary condition for the emergence of deep superpower
30. Note Bruce Bueno de Mesquita's different argument about case selection bias in this theory in, "Pride of Place: The Origins of German Hegemony," WorldPolitics, Vol. 43, No. 1 (October 1990), pp. 28-52.
InternationalSecurity 19:3 | 106
detente, the revolutions in East-Central Europe, and the reunification of Ger- many In this section, I aim to develop a richer understanding of the connection between decline and international change that defuses many criticisms of realism.
THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN DECLINE AND POLICY CHANGE. Perhaps the central theme of recent challenges to realism is the proposition that the realist emphasis on declining relative power is inconsistent with the "Gorbachev revolution." While acknowledging that change in Soviet security policy was the key permissive cause of the Cold War's end, many recent analyses question whether declining power caused that change. Rather, they feature other ex- planatory variables, such as the emergence of industrial society in the West,31 emergence of civil society in East-Central Europe and a legitimization crisis of the communist parties,32Soviet modernization,33 the Soviet domestic political competition between hard-liners and soft-liners,34domestic politics in both the Soviet Union and Western Europe,35Soviet elite or leadership learning,36the existence of nuclear weapons and superpower learning about them,37or some combination of these factors.38
31. Daniel Deudney and G. John Ikenberry, "The International Sources of Soviet Domestic Change," InternationalSecurity,Vol. 13, No. 3 (Winter 1991/92), pp. 74-118. 32. Kratochwil, "The Embarassment of Changes"; and Koslowski and Kratochwil, "Understanding Change."
33. Jack Snyder, "The Gorbachev Revolution: A Waning of Soviet Expansionism?" International Security, Vol. 12, No. 4 (Winter 1987/88), pp. 93-131; and Myths of Empire:Domestic Politics and InterrtationalAmbition (Ithaca, N.Y: Cornell University Press, 1991), chap. 6. 34. Matthew Evangelista, "Internal and External Constraints on Soviet Grand Strategy," in Rose- crance and Stein, Domestic Bases of Grand Strategy;Richard Anderson, "Why Competitive Politics Inhibits Learning in Soviet Foreign Policy," in Robert Jervis and Jack Snyder, eds., Dominoes and Bandwagons:StrategicBeliefsandGreatPowerCompetitionintheEurasianRimland(New York:Oxford University Press, 1991).
35. Thomas Risse-Kappen, "Did 'Peace Through Strength' End the Cold War?Lessons from INF," InternationalSecurity,Vol. 16, No. 1 (Summer 1991), pp. 162-188. 36. George Breslauer, "What Have We Learned about Learning?" in Breslauer and Phillip Tetlock, eds., Learning in U.S. and Soviet Foreign Policy (Boulder, Colo.: Westview, 1991); and Andrew Bennett, "Patterns of Soviet Military Interventionism, 1975-1990: Alternative Explanations and their Implications," in William Zimmerman, ed., Beyond the Soviet Threat:Rethinking American Security Policy in a New Era (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1992). Janice Gross Stein, "Political Learning by Doing: Gorbachev as Uncommitted Thinker and Motivated Learner," in InternationalOrganization,Vol. 48, No. 2 (Spring 1994), pp. 155-183, stresses individual learning by Gorbachev.
37. Steve Weber, "Security after the Revolutions of 1989 and 1991: The Future with Nuclear Weapons," in Patrick J. Garrity and Steven A. Maaranen, eds., Nuclear Weaponsin the Changing World:Perspectivesfrom Europe,Asia and North America(New York:Plenum Press, 1992). 38. For accounts that combine the learning and the leadership competition/domestic politics approaches, see Sarah E. Mendelson, "Internal Battles and External Wars: Politics, Learning and the Soviet Withdrawal from Afghanistan," WorldPolitics, Vol. 45, No. 3 (April 1993), pp. 327-360;
Realismand the End of the Cold War| 107
This literature faces a basic problem, however: the centrality of economic reform to the rise and demise of the Gorbachev revolution.39 The problem for anti-realists (and realists) is that the declining-relative-capabilities explanation is difficult to differentiate from the domestic explanation focusing on the need to revitalize the economy40 This is the basic dilemma of much international relations theory: the difficulty of assigning relative weight to internal versus international factors when they continually influence one another. For surely no critic of realism thinks that the Soviet leaders would have initiated reforms if their economy had been bounding along at six percent a year while the West was mired in a depression. As Alexander Zinoviev put it in 1989, "if there were no West . . . the state of the communist economy would be extolled as the height of perfection, the communist system of power-as the height of democ- racy, the population's living conditions-as an earthly paradise."'4 And surely no realist thinks that the end of the Cold War can be explained adequately without reference to the peculiar mix of centralized authority, weakness and brittleness that we now know was characteristic of the Soviet domestic order.
Any realist discussion of international change must combine the domestic and international levels of analysis. A realist explanation cannot offer a com- prehensive account of precisely why a given state's domestic political, social, and economic institutions decline in comparison to those of competing powers. Instead, it makes only two claims, both of which distinguish it from an account focusing solely on domestic politics. First, definitions of interests are related to perceived relative power. A given state's leadership seeks greater influence on the world stage when it thinks it can, and resolves to retrench internationally
and George Breslauer, "Explaining Soviet Policy Changes: The Interaction of Politics and Learn- ing," in Breslauer, ed., Soviet Policy in Africa: From the Old to the New Thinking (Berkeley, Calif.: Berkeley-Stanford Program in Soviet Studies, 1992). For an argument in favor of combining many of the theories listed above, see Daniel Deudney and G. John Ikenberry, "Soviet Reforms and the End of the Cold War: Explaining Large-Scale Historical Change," Review of InternationalStudies, Vol. 17, No. 3 (Summer 1991), pp. 225-250. A convincing effort to combine international influences and domestic institutional and ideational factors is Jeff Checkel, "Ideas, Institutions, and the Gorbachev Foreign Policy Revolution," WorldPolitics, Vol. 45, No. 2 (January 1993), pp. 271-300. 39. Coit D. Blacker,HostagetoRevolution:GorbachevandSovietSecurityPolicy,1985-1991 (New York: Council on Foreign Relations, 1993), makes a compelling case for the primacy of economic reform in the whole story, connecting it to changes in security policy. As Deudney and Ikenberry note in "The International Sources of Soviet Domestic Change," p. 80: "About the character of the crisis there is wide agreement. Virtually every commentator of these events points to economic stagna- tion as the decisive impetus for change."
40. Most analyses critical of realism acknowledge the importance of economic decline to the whole story, but some authors, discussed below, question its significance compared to other variables. 41. Alexander Zinoviev, "The Missing World War III, the Crisis of Communism, and the Offense of Democracy," Detente, No. 15 (1989), p. 5.
InternationalSecurity 19:3 | 108
when it feels it must. The impetus to address economic deficiencies must be understood in terms of the relative economic efficiency of rival states and the strategic implications of the economy. Second, relative decline is connected to the costs of international competition or security In the case of the Soviet Union and the Cold War's end, perceived relative decline was a necessary condition for the adoption of perestroika and "new thinking," and decline was connected to the burdens imposed by the Soviet Union's international position.
Many recent criticisms of realism maintain that changes in the Soviet political elite's preferences had little or nothing to do with changes in relative Soviet capabilities. They argue that the Soviet Union was not in decline or at least that Soviet decline was not noticeably worse than earlier periods-until after Gorbachev began his reforms.42They argue that Gorbachev's reforms were a cause rather than a consequence of decline. Since they argue that Soviet decline was not particularly acute, many critics of realism see Gorbachev-era change in Soviet security policy as a willful intellectual revolution, not a reaction to the grim realities of the shifting scales of power.43In general, these anti-realists stress Gorbachev's intentionality: he wanted to do what he did because his preferences had changed in ways realists would never expect; he wished to give up "socialism" and join the West.
These arguments do not stand up to scrutiny Critics of realism contrast a simplistic view of the relationship between decline and policy change against a nuanced and complex view of the relationship between their favored ex-
42. See, e.g., Lebow, "Stability and Change in International Relations: A Critique of Realism," esp. p. 266; Friedrich Kratochwil, "The Embarrassment of Changes"; and Stein, "Political Learning by Doing." The strongest case against the declining-capabilities view of Gorbachev is Evangelista, "Internal and External Constraints on Soviet Grand Strategy," in Rosecrance and Stein, Domestic Basesof GrandStrategy.See also John Meuller, "TheImpact of Ideas on Grand Strategy,"in ibid., p. 53.
43. This is an old debate. See Stephen Sestanovich, "Gorbachev's Foreign Policy: A Diplomacy of Decline," Problemsof Communism,(January-February 1988), pp. 1-15; and the important sources cited in Richard K. Herrmann, "Soviet Behavior in Regional Conflicts: Old Questions, New Strategies, and Important Lessons," WorldPolitics, Vol. 44, No. 3 (April 1992), pp. 432-465. The debate is surely not over. On the importance of external causes for Soviet retrenchment, see Celeste A. Wallander, "Opportunity, Incrementalism, and Learning in the, Extension and Retraction of Soviet Global Commitments," and Richard Weitz, "The Soviet Retreat from Third World Conflicts: The Importance of Systemic Factors," both in Security Studies, Vol. 1, No. 3 (Spring 1992), pp. 514- 579, and Celeste A. Wallander and Jane E. Prokop, "Soviet Security Strategies Toward Europe After the Wall, With Their Backs Up Against It," in Robert 0. Keohane, Joseph S. Nye and Stanley Hoffmann, eds., After the Cold War:InternationalInstitutions and State Strategiesin Europe,(Cam- bridge: Harvard University Press, 1993). Finally, for a strong argument in favor of a cognitive learning explanation for Soviet retrenchment, see Andrew Bennett, "Patterns of Soviet Military Interventionism, 1975-1990: Alternative Explanations and their Implications."
Realismand the End of the Cold WarI109
planatory variable and policy change. They also compare incompatible meas- ures. Their nuanced explanations filled with rich case detail are evaluated against quantitative indicators of "power." They ignore perceptions of power. However, if one wants to know whether change in ideas is caused by changes in power relations, one must investigate changing ideas about power.
A causal evaluation of a power-centric theory would have to trace the influence of power as assessed by the individuals and organizations concerned. Critics of realism, who do not do this, often ignore relative decline. The ABC of realism is that relative gains and losses are what matters. Data on absolute Soviet economic performance or defense expenditures are uninteresting to realists; even Soviet-U.S. comparisons are insufficient. The issue is the Soviet Union's capabilities relative to those powers aligned against it on the world stage.
TRACING THE INFLUENCE OF POWER. Tracing the influence of power assess- ments on the evolution of policy is a complex task requiring all the historian's skill and care in evaluating evidence, and maximum access to archival materi- als. 44 The documentary record of Soviet decision-making in the Gorbachev era is sparse, yet a surprising amount of evidence has come to light. This evidence suggests the importance of many factors: the sense of security provided by nuclear weapons; the force of Gorbachev's convictions; the exigencies of do- mestic politics; luck, chance and caprice. But the available evidence also sug- gests that the story cannot be told now and will not be able to be told in the future without according an important causal role to the problem of relative decline. The keys to keep in mind in any causal evaluation are that power is always relative; that perceptions and expectations link power to policy; and that rational assessments can change quickly when new evidence becomes available.
What perceptions of power surrounded the initial decisions to opt for reform, and how did feedback from the new policies feed into subsequent decisions? Most Sovietologists were long aware that reform sentiments had existed within and around the Soviet Communist Party elite since Khrushchev's Twentieth Party Congress. But through the 1960s and 1970s the Soviet leadership had a robust view of the Soviet Union's relative capabilities; this view was buttressed
44. As difficult as it is, it can and has been done, especially for the periods preceding the two world wars. Examples include Friedberg, The WearyTitan;Wohlforth, "The Perception of Power"; Risto Ropponen, Die KraftRuisslands(Helsinki: Historiallisia tutkimiksia, 1968); and Ernest R. May, ed., Knowing One's Enemies:Intelligence Assessments beforethe Two World Wars, (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1986).
InternationalSecurity 19:3 | 110
by foreign governments, led by the United States, which viewed it as a rising power that had to be accommodated politically. That set of perceptions con- trasted starkly with the views in the early 1980s, when reform ideas began to get through to members of the top leadership.45
Two factors helped bring reform notions to the fore in the early 1980s: the system-wide decline in socialism's economic performance-dramatically high- lighted by the Solidarity movement in Poland-against a backdrop of economic recovery in the West; and the Soviet Union's awful geopolitical position, with every other major power in the entire world, in every region, allied or aligned against Moscow. Each general secretary from Brezhnev on acknowledged these problems openly in speeches and policy pronouncements, and official concern was detectable even in the pages of the censored press and scholarly journals. Reformist analysts at research institutes penned pessimistic classified assess- ments arguing for new policies to address both problems.46 The situation seemed doubly grim because many Soviet analysts were changing the way they measured power. They began to replace the old brute indicators of steel pro- duction and energy consumption with new measures that highlighted efficiency and high technology
The ideas for foreign and domestic policy change that began to get through to the top leadership in this period were not new, but the combination of external and internal problems was. Gorbachev and members of his inner circle date the immediate origins of the reforms precisely to the 1982-83 period. The key issue around which the reformers mobilized was the need to hold a party plenum to consider the issue of the scientific-technical revolution which, they argued, was passing socialism by and would continue to do so in the absence of reforms. The program Gorbachev announced to the April 1985 party plenum one month after his selection as general secretary had been developed in 1983 and 1984.47
45. Wohlforth, Elusive Balance,chaps. 7, 8. 46. On open acknowledgment of problems, see Wohlforth, Elusive Balance,pp. 224-229, and sources cited therein. For classified institute assessments of the international situation, see Robert English, "Russia Views the West: Intellectuals, Ideology and Foreign Policy, " Ph.D. dissertation, Princeton University, forthcoming in 1994, chap. 7. 47. Transcript of Michael McFaul's summer 1992 interview with N.I. Ryzhkov for the Hoover Institution's oral history project, pp. 127, 136-138. Gorbachev dated the immediate origins of his reforms to 1982: see John Gooding, "Perestroika as a Revolution from Within," Russian Review,Vol. 51, No. 1 (January 1992), p. 46, fn. 29. Other accounts concur: Yegor Ligachev, Inside Gorbachev's Kremlin,trans. Catherine A. Fitzpatrick, Michele A. Berdy, and Dorbochna Dyrcz-Freeman (New York:Pantheon,1993),chap.1;N.I.Ryzhkov,Perestroika:IstoriiaPredatel'stv(Moscow:Novosti,
Realismand the End of the Cold WarI111
Thus, the impetus for innovation and even the contours of the new policies are inexplicable without reference to the interconnected problems of perceived relative decline and overextension. The policy that emerged from these circum- stances sought to bring capabilities and commitments into line while reducing the cohesion and hostility of the opposing coalition of states through careful appeasement. This would reduce the threat, potentially facilitate valuable co- operation with more advanced rival states, and allow a reallocation of domestic resources to assist in the long-term revitalization of Soviet socialism. "New thinking" ideas and policy concepts-many of them western in origin-pro- vided the policy's intellectual undergirding. Two central ideas suggested how Moscow might reduce its massive commitment to military power at minimal cost to itself: recognition of the security dilemma, and belief in the prevalence of bala  more

It is important that the nurse with a bachelor of science in nursing be able to use research-based studies to inform decision making in the clinical area.

Assignment:

A. Select an ...article from a nursing research journal (PLEASE CHOOSE ARTICLE ABOUT COLON CANCER PREVENTION(IT HAS TO BE PRIMARY RESEARCH ARTICLE) and critique the article (suggested
length of 2pages) by doing the following:

1. Identify the article you have chosen in an APA-formatted citation.

2. Design a graphic or chart to show how the researcher addressed the five areas of a research report (background information, review of the literature, discussion of methodology, specific data analysis, and conclusion). See attached example. THIS IS REQUIRED.

BACKGROUND
INFORMATION REVIEW OF LITERATURE DISCUSSION OF METHODOLOGY
SPECIFIC DATA ANALYSIS
CONCLUSION


3. Based on your analysis of the five areas, assess whether the evidence presented in the research report supports the conclusion (suggested length of ? page). PLEASE USE QUOTATIONS FROM THE ARTICLE.

4. Discuss ethical issues that may have arisen for the researcher while conducting the research for the article (suggested length of 1/2 page).

5. Discuss the type of research used for the study (suggested length of 1/2 page). Please address point below.

? Explain whether or not other types of research would have been appropriate in the same situation.

B. Conduct a literature search to evaluate nursing care or management implications of a therapeutic nursing intervention by doing the following:

B1. Identify a nursing care or management problem for a therapeutic nursing situation
(suggested length 1/2 page). GOAL: NURSING ROLE IN TEACHING ABOUT IMPORTANCE OF GLUTEN FREE DIET AND REGULAR FOLLOW-UP WITH GASTROENTEROLOGIST.


B2. Complete the attached matrix to list 10 primary research sources (peer-reviewed
articles) you locate in major medical databases. All 10 sources sent as attachment. See Matrix below:
Primary Research Matrix
Use this table to organize your review. This is required for all sources. This matrix has to be included for this order.
Author(s) Source Date (year) Research Type (experimental, quasi-experimental, case series, ethnographic, etc) Population/
sample size Outcome measures Pertinent data from results Suggested Conclusions Comments

B3. Conduct a review of the 10 peer-reviewed research articles in which you (ALL ARTICLES SEND AS ATTACHEMENTS):
1. Develop an annotated bibliography (suggested length of 3 pages) of the articles.
Note: An annotated bibliography is one that includes not only a brief summary of content for each book or article reviewed, but also contains other relevant comments and information that the candidate believes can be of help for future study. See attachment for example.
2. Discuss whether the researchers present a case for the efficacy of a specified therapeutic approach. The writer provides a credible and well-supported discussion of whether the researchers present a case for the efficacy of a specified therapeutic approach.
3. Identify whether the researchers chose tools that were similar or different.

4. Discuss whether you believe the tools the researchers chose could have affected their results.

B4. Develop an evidence summary of the articles; identifying what key criteria were used to develop it (suggested length of 1 page).

B5. Recommend a specific nursing strategy based on the theoretical models and evidence you found in your review (suggested length 1/2 page).

B6. Explain why you believe it is important to use a theoretical model for nursing research (suggested length of 1/2 page).

C. Include all in-text citations and references in APA format. Please include all articles from Part A and B in reference page.
PLEASE ADDRESS ALL QUESTIONS AS SEPARATE PARAGRAPHS. IN PART A QUESTION 1, 2, 3, 4, 5. IN PART B: B1, B2, B3 (1, 2, 3, 4), B4, B5, B6  more

IBO4001 Business Dissertation ? Full Dissertation
Please note that this work counts for 85% of your overall grade.
Word limit: 10,000 words.
Assessment criteria:

Students should: ...

? State the overall aims and objectives clearly e.g. (dis)proving something, applying theory to a real situation, setting up a hypothesis, etc.
? Explain and justify the research methods to be adopted and reflect upon their appropriateness e.g. typical problems of using questionnaires or of interviewing, etc. here it will help to make further use of the Saunders, Lewis & Thornhill e-book (see above)
? Discuss range of relevant secondary research e.g. reviewing appropriate books and articles ? with a reasonable balance between academic and industry journals (this will be a revised version of the Initial Literature Review already submitted)
? Demonstrate a high level of critical analysis setting the research findings in the context of the literature - purely descriptive pieces of work are inappropriate
? Come to conclusions/ recommendations which are consistent with the analysis
? Structure the dissertation logically and reference sources using Harvard referencing style


Grades will not be allocated separately for each of these areas ? staff will grade according to the generic grade criteria at the end of this document.



4 How to approach researching and writing your dissertation
4.1. Choosing a topic - the requirements

The basic requirement is for the work to be about a current business problem or issue in your work-place. To help you get started we have produced a list of the sorts of topics which we think might make good dissertations:
? Benchmarking projects investigating ?best practice? companies in respect of business issues such as :
o managing operations
o off-shoring
o waste management/ good environmental practice
o web-sites
o corporate social responsibility
o going global
o balanced score-card
o managing a diverse workforce
o customer/ brand loyalty schemes
o retention of staff
? Implementing Strategic Change issues ? staff attitude surveys
? Analysis of industries/ sectors with view to reporting on competitive opportunities for new entrants or existing businesses.
? Small Business issues such as managing succession in a family business
? Investigating new geographical markets for existing businesses.
This list is by no means definitive. If you are interested in a topic which is not listed here, please speak to your Hong Kong tutor to discuss your ideas.

4.2. Developing a research question/ hypothesis

This is probably the most difficult part of the whole process! Students often struggle to write a precise research question or hypothesis at the start of their research. This may well be because they have a hunch that something is worth investigation, but the topic is still too broad and needs to be refined. For most people the initial idea may well be very broad: ?I want to do something about women in management?, for example. This is fine as a starting point, but it is important to realise that the area to be studied must become more specific - and a precise hypothesis or research question developed - as time goes by.
In this case it is necessary to reconsider the intended scope of your research. This should result in the adoption of a more tightly focused hypothesis or research question. The aim is to define the parameters of your research and, thus, to define the areas about which you need to collect data. For example, the above idea might be formulated as: Female managers show more concern for staff welfare than male managers. In this case a research strategy would have to be developed to measure a manager?s concern for staff welfare; for example, samples of male and female managers would need to be surveyed and their attitudes contrasted.
4.3. Establishing your theory

Regardless of the topic of a dissertation it is important to identify some conceptual material (theory) which can aid analysis of the issue identified. This stage can be quite difficult if you have an idea of a contemporary business issue but are unable to identify any relevant conceptual material. Make use of your supervisor to guide you through this process!
Hundreds of thousands of books and articles have been written on management and business topics in the past few decades. Several thousand articles have been written on topics of continuing interest such as motivation and job satisfaction alone. The student?s task is not to find and read them all, which is of course impossible. Rather, it is to locate some of the important ?milestones? in the literature on a topic.
These milestones usually make up the key conceptual ?building blocks? of a topic; identifying them may be thought of as the main aim of your initial literature search.
Academic literature attempts to develop these concepts and models and to confirm or disprove theories relating to management and business as a way of advancing knowledge. In particular, articles generally attempt to report results of research and thinking by:
? testing hypotheses or examining research questions that help to support or contradict theories;
? bringing together knowledge and understanding in review articles of individual topics;
? developing improved research methods for use in particular fields such as strategy or organisational behaviour; and
? reporting the results of surveys and investigations.

Every field of management and business has a set of related academic journals in which research findings are published. An important task for the student is to locate the right set of journals for the topic under study. Although it may seem as if journals contain a haphazard collection of papers, over time, consistent themes emerge in them. In almost every field of management and business there are unresolved issues and continuing debate that academics pursue through conferences, journals and books. This is the material that you must get to grips with in your work.
4.4. Tips on Searching

There are two situations that students encounter at the start of a search. Firstly, the student begins with an interesting idea but cannot see how it links to established concepts in the literature. Without a set of keywords to look for the search becomes vague and imprecise. Important papers might be found but their relevance may not be recognised. Clearly, students need to clarify and articulate their chosen topic. A clear topic heading such as services marketing, racial discrimination, or team leadership will help the search. When a working ?label? is found, the search can continue.
Alternatively, the student might know the broad area touched on by a topic and be unable to locate anything specific enough. The problem here is often that the student has failed to define a sufficiently precise question or issue to examine.
The most useful tool on our Library site to use for searching is Metalib. The first activity for ibo3104 gives some instructions for using this ? so you should be able to use this by now.
Perhaps the commonest reactions from novice searchers are that there is nothing relevant or that they find too much. Finding too little often stems from an inability to identify the vocabulary used by academic writers and database producers to describe different topics.
The other problem of finding too many records may stem from using broad search strategies in the database. This is commonplace when popular topics such as customer care are chosen for retrieval; the main way of limiting the search is by adding another specific keyword, eg. adding ?retail? to ?customer care? to give only records in the retail sector.


4.5. Turning a literature search into a literature review: the ?critical analysis? element

Finding relevant literature is just the beginning. You should not take the literature as being definitive or unquestionable. Rather you should understand its limitations and display this in your writing. This is not to say that literature should be criticised in a negative way. Previous authors are acknowledged to have advanced thinking in a particular field and obtain credit for this. However, it is often possible to constructively criticise literature on the basis that:
? previous findings may not be extendable to other situations, eg. to other groups of employees or to other business sectors;

? the method(s) used to conduct a piece of research may have major limitations;

? findings which appeared sound at the time of the study may need re-evaluating in the light of changed circumstances such as market and labour conditions; and

? key assumptions underlying a piece of research may be challenged.

Being able to identify such things offers a way of devising an appropriate hypothesis worthy of further testing.
In final year first degree work the critical element should feature highly. The best way to understand how to evaluate literature on a topic is to read a few papers in leading academic journals. If your piece of work is very theoretical you should try to locate omissions in the original theory or provide alternative explanations for an observation. If your piece of work is essentially a work-based project staff will allow more use of industry journals than perhaps they would in a dissertation without any primary research.
Students need to show evidence of analysis, synthesis and evaluation if they are to be high achievers. There is a simple way of looking back over your own material and looking for signs of critical thinking. Look for the indicator words and phrases such as:
because... ; therefore... ;
firstly... ; secondly... ; thirdly... ;
from the above discussion... ; assuming that... ;
this appears to be... ; consequently... ;
for example... ; if... then... ; in conclusion...; to summarise... .

These words and phrases at the very least suggest that the writer is getting to grips with material and bringing his or her identity to the analysis.  more

**Note to OPP Final Thesis Composer**
This is considered a final Master's level thesis paper also referred to as a Capstone Initiative. It is imperative that the composer use the outline below as... a guideline for researching the topic "The Shrinking Middle-Class America" and uses a variety of reference materials (15-20) such as books, articles, journals, and a few internet sources so long as the information cited can be proven based on gathered survey and research data in relation to the topic (The Shrinking Middle-Class America).
This paper needs to be at least 27-30 pages long, in APA FORMAT. Basically, this thesis paper has no absolute way it is supposed to be written and no real specific guidelines as to the style of writing. However as a suggestion, at the bottom of the page is an ?Intent Form? I had to submit to my University for approval of the thesis topic which provides an explanation that should help establish a small outline for the paper. For example, the section on ?Potential Solutions and Benefits to Restoring American Middle-Class? and the ?Description? Section are somewhat detailed but of course, this is just a suggestion. By all means, write about the things you find most important in your research. Lastly, just to give you a heads up, once you have completed the final paper, I will be preparing and presenting Powerpoint slides and will base my presentation on how you decide to structure the paper. I will then be presenting on final day of class, FYI.
Thanks again and Please not hesitate to send me a message if you have a question, suggestion, etc.
Final Thesis Paper
Proposed Title: The Shrinking Middle-Class America

Description
The object of this research project is to gain an understanding and a perspective towards the recent issue of the rapidly declining American Middle Class System. The goal is to uncover the real reasons this has been happening, perhaps symbolic of rapidly shifting times or as a result of something far more sinister. The found research will focus on topics such as socioeconomic status, social groups, politics, and capitalism. Below are some detailed questions I had found interesting while researching for the project.
1. What are some reasons people were divided into differing classes?
2. What role does income, family and/or religious beliefs play in determining an individual?s social class?
3. Is it common for people to switch from one type of class to another?
4. If economics, politics, and society helped shape distinct classes of people from one another, how can one class disappear when they possess the same political and economic beliefs and conditions?
5. Did the 2008 Financial Crisis and the bailouts contribute or even cause the shrinking of middle class America?
6. Is this the beginning of the end for social class or might there be the classes of rich and poor people some day?
Personal Interest
When I had first heard of the ?vanishing of the middle-class? and how many American families were beginning to shift from the middle-class lifestyle, it was hard to believe since so much of the population fell somewhere within the parameters of middle-class. Soon however, I began to realize its meaning as it became more and more obvious within my own family that we had existed in a world where a typical American dream seemed more likely attainable through sheer luck than by being the hard working, loyal people of our parents and grandparents. I think having been exposed to this idea at a younger age has given me the interest and the time to pursue and enjoy a dream career with a broader outlook on life, both inside and outside of the workplace.
Potential Solutions and Benefits to Restoring American Middle-Class
The research analysis and conclusions conducted for this project begins with the direct involvement of government policy that can make a difference in income distribution, temporarily, and in job creation. Both are also incredibly important when it comes to the economic welfare. Also, The Center for American Progress has issued 16 recommendations to help Americans and create jobs. A couple of examples used highlights additional policies to help rebuild the middle class that should also become part of the national debate. For example, one suggestion would reward students who work their way through college with increased access to federal student aid. Federal work-study aid should be expanded through stand-alone legislation to help working students afford college. Benefits ($3,000 to $5,000) could be targeted to Pell Grant recipients by matching the aid to the size of their Pell Grant award. Another similar recommendation from The Center for American Progress is boosting the earnings of workers and provide a greater incentive for firms to hire new workers by making more workers eligible for overtime pay while currently there are too many modestly paid, white-collar workers are largely unable to collect overtime due to unreasonably low-income limits.
Methods of Gathering Information
Initially I had brainstormed a list of ideas for the project and decided ?American middle-class? was the most interesting topic to me. After using the internet for a quick way to determine the bulk and content of information available as a reference source, I was able to retrieve enough information to determine using a primary research source would not in my best interest due to the short length of the course and that I have no experience with primary research m
Secondary Data Research
Secondary data collection will be my method of research which will require using internal and external sources such as online search engines, newspapers, and various other types of literature. The data will be collected first, the research activities will then be planned and managed closely to ensure that they do not absorb significant amounts of time and cost. Again, the one and only method of research is secondary and will be conducted at the library to gather as much accurate data as possible through the use of search engines, directories, forums and so on.
Knowledge and Skills Need
Four areas of my MBA education that I will be applying towards the project include:
1. A comprehensive understanding of all subject areas within the human resources management discipline.
2. Analysis of the different types of social classes and structures that exist between Americans, internally and externally within the organization.
3. The ability to formulate, prepare and present an integrated approach to resolving the subject matters complex problems.
4. Demonstrate the ability to apply problem solving and decision making methodologies and develop appropriate recommendations.
Previous Research on this Topic
No prior research has been conducted on this subject so I will not be submitting any previous schoolwork that has been completed to the professor.  more

The paper is a MBA dissertation research proposal and should follow the following format:-

TITLE : (INFORMATION COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY (ICT) AND SMEs COMPETITIVENESS IN A DEVELOPING CARIB...BEAN COUNTRY)

QUESTION: How can SMEs in (Caribbean) use ICT to achieve competitive advantage?

CHAPTER 1 - INTRODUCTION (approx 600 words)
-Background: This informs the reader of the problem or the situation
-Rationale for the study. What is the research issue?
Why is it an issue?
Why is it an issue now?
What could this research shed light on?
- Research aims, objectives, questions or hypothesis

CHAPTER 2 - LITERATURE REVIEW & CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK (approx 1200words)
- Critically review 5 ? 6 sources (RECENT) to underpin the study in order to produce a conceptual framework

CHAPTER 3- RESEARCH DESIGN & METHODOLOGY(approx 1500 words)
This section should give detailed rationale of the following:
- Research philosophy & paradigm (please discuss Epistemology, Ontology, then indicate whether phenomenological or positivistic paradigm or Mixed methods will be use and why)
(NOTE: I WISH TO USE MIXED METHODS)
- Research Methodology (explain rationale and choice of research methods)
- Data Sources
- Sampling Techniques and Procedures
- Data Analysis & Technique
- Research Ethics
- Limitations to methodology
-Summary in diagram format

CHAPTER 4- TIME PLAN & RESOURCES (approx 300 words)
- Gantt chart with justification (this should depict how available time will be used to complete proposed research)January 2013 to April 30 2013
- Detailed consideration of resources required to successfully enable execution of the research project
- Identify limitations and steps to mitigate  more

"Investigating the knowledge, attitude and practice patterns of operating room staff towards standard and transmission-based precautions: Results of a cluster analysis." Fai Chan, Moon, Ho, Aly, and Day, Mary Christin (2008). Journal of Clinical Nursing. January 27, 2007. Blackwell Publishing Limited.

In three PowerPoint presentation, do an analysis of a quantitative research study report. In one slide, do a conclusion to the critique. Incude speaker notes.

I need the following discussed in an article critique:

1. Data collection methods: In what ways is the data collection procedures appropriate for the study?

2. Data collection methods: In what way(s) were appropriate steps taken to protect the rights of the subjects?

3. Data analysis procedures: In what ways are the data analysis procedures appropriate for the data collected?

4. Data analysis procedures: In what way(s) are the data analysis procedures appropriate for answering the research question(s) or testing the study hypothesis or hypotheses?

Discuss Strenghts and Limitations:

1. What are two major strengths of the scientific merit of this study?

2. What are two major limitations of the scientific merit of this study?

Write a conclusion to the article analysis or critique of this essay.