I NEED A TOTAL OF 300 WORD RESPONSE OR COMMENTS ON THIS 2 DISCUSSION

1) I NEED 150 WORD RESPONSE OR COMMENTS FOR DISCUSSION:

Three characteristics of Romantic poetry are,use of Passion, Individualism, and increased emotionalism.Romantic poetry displays a return to nature by man, tired of the exhaustion of reason and the search for truth of the Enlightenment, the Romantic poets dismissed reason and embrace nature.

Percy Bysshe Shelley was considered a major English Romantic poet and many believe, the finest lyrical poet of the English language.Shelley's unconventional life and uncompromising idealism, together with a strong skeptical voice made him notorious during his time.He is famous for his friendship with fellow poets,John Keats and Lord Byron; all of whom died an untimely death at a young age. He was married to the famous novelist Mary Shelley, author of Frankenstein, In this section of his Poem. Ode to the west wind, I believe the way he compares loose clouds to decaying leaves, and speaks of the rain and lightning show the romantic style of poetry.

Ode to the west wind

Thou on whose stream, 'mid the steep sky's commotion,
Loose clouds like earth's decaying leaves are shed,
Shook from the tangled boughs of heaven and ocean,
Angels of rain and lightning; there are spread

John Keats is considered one of the principal poets of the English Romantic period.During his short life, his writings received constant attacks from the periodicals of the day.It was not until the mid-nineteenth century that people began to appreciate more fully, the significance of the cultural change his works helped to form.Keats' poetry can be characterize by his elaborate word choices and sensual use of imagery. His works to this day remain among the most popular poems in the English language

Seep and Poetry

What is more gentle than a wind in summer?
What is more soothing than the pretty hummer
That stays one moment in an open flower,
And buzzes cheerily from bower to bower?
The use of nature to express feelings and emotions can again be seen here as in the previous poem by Shelley.


Walt Whitman, American poet, journalist, and essayist.His verse collection Leaves of Grass is a landmark in the history of American literature. Whitman experimented with a new form of poetry.Poetry that was free of a regular rhythm or rhyme scheme that has come to be known as free verse.Whitman celebrated the human body and the common man in the content of his poems which was considered revolutionary in his day and age.In this section from Whitmans Leaves of Grass he definitely shows a strong sense of individualism.

I celebrate myself, and sing myself,
And what I assume you shall assume,
For every atom belonging to me as good belongs to you.
I loafe and invite my soul,
I lean and loafe at my ease observing a spear of summer grass.



2) I NEED 150 WORD RESPONSE OR COMMENTS FOR DISCUSSION:

Landscape painting in Western art is a relatively recent development, having evolved only during the last five centuries or so. Before anyone could see much point to depicting forests, farmlands, or riverbanks, it was necessary to develop an interest in, if not love of, nature. I believe that people were left out of most of these images so that they would not take away from the beauty of the land. For most of Western history, however, the natural world had been viewed more as an enemy than as a friend, more a threat than a promise.
With certain exceptions, ancient and classical cultures generally restricted images of nature to individual elements such as fruit trees or birds of prey that were sacred emblems. Occasionally, renderings of coastlines or mountain ranges served as settings for narrative subjects.
This rebirth of a interest in humanity's relationship to the world generated an appreciation of nature and the beginnings of landscape as a subject for European art.
In the late sixteenth century, there finally came into being pure landscape, with human figures either absent altogether or present only to give a sense of scale and activity.
Once the significance of nature had entered Western consciousness, however, a problem arose: Is nature benevolent or savage? American and European philosophers and artists debated over precise definitions for the emotional terms to describe these experiences, painting scenes of the earth as beautiful,idyllic, picturesque, or rustic.
Along with these arguments concerning the poetic idealization of the land were discussions about the relative merits of topographical accuracy in painting specific locations, architectural landmarks, and cityscapes. Such depictions of real places often acquired overtones of national pride, proclaiming the glories of one's own country.
By the middle of the nineteenth century, modern philosophy and inventions had significantly altered Western society. Steamboats and railroads, navigational chronometers, and photography were rapidly increasing access to and use of the environment.
The fundamental connection between humanity and nature is at the very core of the land's appeal as an artistic subject, a connection that has shaped and been shaped by the changing circumstances of civilization. Thus it might be argued that landscape painting reveals less about nature than it does about human nature and natural people. Natural peoples represent a form of culture and spirituality that did not arise from the context of the great historical religions but only stands beside them due to the unavoidable proximity on our planet, with their independent and original way on different segments of history.

The following replies have been posted:
Message: of Western history, however, the natural world had been viewed more as an enemy than as a friend, more a threat than a promise.
With certain exceptions, ancient and classical cultures generally restricted images of nature to individual elements such as fruit trees or birds of prey that were sacred emblems. Occasionally, renderings of coastlines or mountain ranges served as settings for narrative subjects.

Kris responds: Your statement about nature being more of a threat than a friend shoots me back into Bosch, Bruegel and other Northern Renaissance artists, but does it apply to the works of Raphael or da Vinci, who studied botany and incorporated detailed images of plant life into his paintings, rendering them with such clarity that they elicit a sense of appreciation and awe from the viewer? da Vinci also used natural images as symbols of religious and moral values.

Now, I am not saying all this to detract from your point, rather to refine it and ask that we begin to look at regional art a bit more closely. Yes, Western culture did and does continue to share certain elements--in general. However, more specifically, we see that pockets or subcultures develop. In the period we are currently studying, there is are differences, fairly stark difference, between the European and American approaches to Romantic style. And within each of these geographic areas, we see more subtle differences between the works of American or European artists--just as we did when we looked at the Renaissance style of da Vinci and Raphael--many shared elements, yet uniquely applied.

Shannon writes: Thus it might be argued that landscape painting reveals less about nature than it does about human nature and natural people. Natural peoples represent a form of culture and spirituality that did not arise from the context of the great historical religions.

Kris responds: What an interesting statement! Can you tie your comment to an analysis of a few specific paintings to show us how a depiction of nature reflects the artist's view of human nature?
.
Message: In the piece Snowstorm: Hannibal and His Army Crossing the Alps, the picture displays a army of men caught in a massive snow storm. The image portrayed is dark, lonely and dreary. The men seem to be trapped by the storm, possibly depicting their situation at that time. Also in the piece Monk by the Sea the image gives a feeling of humbeness in the presence of the land and the water and seems to reflect the idea that we are just one very small part of this giant world.

5 questions of 2 pages each.

Classical Mythology's enduring legacy:
Question1)Discuss 3 ways in which the film "Oh Brother, Where Art Thou?" imitates Homer's Odyssey. How are these ways not simply a copy but a creative adaptation?

Ovid:
Question2) Demonstrate the literary structure of "Metamorphoses" 3.1-4.617 (pp.51-93 in the Melville translation). What literary features hold this unit together, yet also further the story?

Question3) What is Ovid's Metamorphoses about? Support your answer by reference to at least 3 texts or group of texts.
(how would you characterize Ovid's theme of change? what kind of change is he primarily referring to? support your answer with specific references to the text)

Virgil:
Question4) How is Virgil's Aeneid similar to and different from Homer's Iliad and Odyssey?
(As Virgil portrays him, what virtues does Aeneas possess that set him apart from his heroic counterparts in Greek mythology?)

Question5) Does Aeneas really want to leave Dido? What reasons does he provide for doing so?


Sources to be used:
*Homer. Odyssey. Trans. Ian Johnston.
< http://www.mala.bc.ca/~Johnstoi/homer/odysseytofc.htm>
*Homer. The Iliad. Trans. Ian Johnston.

*Ovid. Metamorphoses. Trans. A. D. Melville. New York: Oxford UP, 1998.
*Virgil. Aeneid.
*Oh Brother, Where Art Thou(2000) George Clooney

Hi. I need some information about the situation of the elders in ancient japan (asien) and the aspect to die and the modern time- and rituals/religions such as e.g. the history or old mythos that the elders went for dying to the montains when the time is coming.

The paper should cover the evolution of rotorcraft from the toys of ancient china through modern helicopters and tilt rotor aircraft. Additionally the paper should also cover the wide range of applications that rotorcraft contribute to the world we live in.

Explore the ways in which the Humanities reflect changing concepts of nature and individual differences during the Late Middle Ages. Select specific works to illustrate your view of the changes that have occurred and present explanation of how and why the concepts characterize the period.

Make a connection to Ancient Egypt,Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome and discuss the changes that are evident.

Explain how the Athenians, despite their lack of numbers, used their knowledge of the land as well as their tactical superiority in order to defeat the Persians during The Battle of Marathon, and clarify the battle's significance within the progress of European culture.

DRAFT PLAN:

INTRO.

The Battle of Marathon, to this day, was believed to have involved some of histories most famed military arrangements. This particular victory is not only reflective of the Athenian's supreme knowledge of the land, but is also an indication of their extensive tactical wit.

P1. - KNOWLEDGE OF THE LAND

P2. - TACTICAL SUPERIORITY
- reflect on the Greek's general way of thinking at the time

P3 - DEVELOPMENT OF EUROPEAN CULTURE

CONC.


Bibliography:

The Histories - Herodotus

A History of Greece - J B Bury and Russell Meiggs

The Greeks and The Persians - Bergstrom

The Persian Wars - Battle of Marathon - NS Gill

The Battle of Marathon, 490 BC - www.eyewitnesstohistory.com (2006)

THE BATTLE OF MARATHON - www.library.thinkquest.org (March 2000)

The city of Athens was a thriving and wonderful city. It also had a very small army and no king or queen. Many other kings from far away eyed Athens as a prize colony to add to their kingdoms. So one day the far away Asian country of Persia took action and sent their army out to capture Athens. Of course, when the Athenians heard of this they were extremely scared. They asked other cities for help. One city agreed to help and sent their army to Athens, but they were weak and the Athenians did not think it would help too much. They were particularly hoping to have the war city of Sparta help them in battle, but they were in the middle of a month-long festival to pray to Pan, the god of nature and wildlife, and a god sacred to the Spartans. During this festival they could not go into battle or else Pan would become angry at their disobedience. However, they promised to pray to Pan to help the Athenians. Pan heard them and promised to send a disease to afflict the Persian army. This did not comfort the Athenians much, but the Persian army was drawing nearer and they had to fight. An Athenian general devised a war plan the night before the Persian attack that was original and had never been used before.

The next morning, a battle began at the Battlefield of Marathon. The plan worked well, and confused the Persian Army. Then, the Athenians saw the Persian soldiers were breaking their ranks and nothing could get them back to order. When the Persian army had been confused and worried, the disease Pan had promised suddently attacked. This disease still exists today. It is called panic. The Persian army was easily defeated and one Athenian soldier, who also happened to be a runner, went and told the citizens of Athens of the victory. The distance from the Battlefield of Marathon to Athens, which can be confirmed today if you ever go to Greece, is 26.3 miles. The run to the city was historic in its own little way. How do you think marathons of today were named?

When the runner finally reached the steps to the city of Athens, he could run no farther. He collapsed on the ground and said a final word, "Nike!" This means victory in Greek. Then he died.

SOME NOTES FOR ESSAY FROM ONLINE WRITINGS:
The ancient Greeks were one of the most successful superpowers of the era but their fighters were vastly outnumbered by their enemy army in the battle of marathon. Overcoming the Persians was a critical accomplishment by the Greeks in the Greco-Persian wars of the 5th century and can be attributed to their superior strategizing and exceptional leadership in time of crisis. so how did the Greeks do to conquer such vast areas and win battles against the odds?
The Persian Empire was bigger, richer, and had more manpower, yet the Greeks were able to unite successfully to defeat them. The Greeks did, however, have several advantages which enabled them to be victorious. The Greeks defeated the Persians because of three benefits: the phalanx, the trireme, and their motivation. the persians were badly trained despite being high in number - they relied on sheer weight of massed bow fire to defeat the enemy. greeks were famous for there unique fighting style and tactics- different from tactics of the persians, the persians had more intricate tactics. the Greek armies were small and simplistic. the greeks also had knowledge of the landscape and geography
IN THE BATTLE OF MARATHON
The Persian army had possibly around 19,000 foot solders and 1000 cavalry. (NOT SURE THIS IS ACCURATE ACTUALLY)
The Athenian army was smaller with only 10,000 hoplite and 400 skirmishers.(NOT SURE THIS IS ACCURATE ACTUALLY) (need to describe hoplite?)
( the exact numbers of the two armies are unclear because of exaggerated accounts and the telling of the battle was recounted for entertainment so could be exaggerated)
The battle of Marathon is one of the three most important battles of the Persian Wars. The Persian army, under King Darius, camped on the beach of Marathon and planned on marching to Athens and overwhelm them with their superior numbers. The Athenians mobilised their troops swiftly and assembled in the hills above the beach directly in the path of the Persians. Instead of attacking immediately the Persians camped on the beach for several days, allowing the Athenian generals to hold a council and decide on a course of action. The Council put Miltiades in charge of the conducting of the eminent battle and he was able to find a solution to the problem of being outnumbered by the Persians. His main concern was of being surrounded by the enemy. He decided to weaken the centre lines of the greek troops and put the extra men on the flanks of his three pronged formation.
When the battle started the Persian centre was able to break through Miltiades centre but their flanks were overwhelmed and the Persian phalanx collapsed upon itself. The two flanks met in the center and subdued the entire army due to Miltiades strategy and execution. The Athenians were able to capture 7 Persian ships, kill 6,400 Persians, and only lose 192 men; it was a complete victory.
The Athenians set up with a deliberately weak centre and strong flanks.
The Persians advanced and managed to break through the Athenian centre, but the Persian flanks were destroyed and the Athenians were able to surround and slaughter the Persians in the centre.
The hoplite himself would be equipped with an Iron spear (about 2.3 meters long) and a short sword (about 2ft or 60cm long.) They also had a shield around 1 meter in diameter called a Hoplon (this is where the Hoplite get there name from.) They would wear a bronze carcass (beast plate) and leather grieves (thigh guards.) The design of the Hoplon meant that the Hoplite was entirely dependent
on the warrior on the right hand side of him for protection and this is how the phalanx formation was devised as it gave every warrior full body protection.
The phalanx was the military system that the Greeks used to organize their troops which had been perfected through centuries of fighting one another. It consisted of a column of heavy infantry carrying long spears and swords. The spears, called pikes, were six to twelve feet long. They were not thrown but were used for thrusting. The soldiers in the phalanx were called hoplites, named after the hoplon which was the round shield they carried into battle. The hoplites wore metal armor on their chest, forearms, and shins, plus a metal helmet. These soldiers were extremely well trained. They made up for their lack of numbers with superior equipment and discipline. (2)
The Persians, on the otherhand, were able to raise an immense army due to the enormous size of their empire. However, these warriors were by far not as well trained or as well equipt as the Greek armies (2). The Persians did not fight as a unit like the Greeks did.
The superiority of the Greek phalanx can be seen by analyzing the battle which took place at Marathon in 490 BC. At this battle, the Athenian phalanx was able to defeat the entire invading Persian force without the help of the Spartans, who had promised to send their army towards Marathon but their religion forbid them to move before the moon was full (2). The Greek forces consisted of 10,000 hoplites while the Persians army was numbering in more than 120,00 men although some sources have the Persian forces at around 50,000 (4). The great Athenian general Miltiades came up with a shrewd battle plan. He decided to thin out the ranks in the center of the phalanx to strengthen the wings. During the battle, the Greek wings crushed the Persian wings and forced them to retreat. At the same time, the Persians in the middle managed to break through the weakened center of the phalanx. Instead of pursuing the retreating Persian wings, the Greek wings moved backward to attack the Persians that had broken through the Greek defenses. The Greek centre then turned around so that they had the Persians surrounded. The Persians were slaughtered (5). According to the Greek historian Herodotus, the Persians lost 6400 men while the Greeks lost only 192 (4).
The ancient Greeks were one of the most successful superpowers of the era conquering large parts of the Middle East. They are also very famous for there unique fighting style which was completely different from the exotic and intricate tactics of the Middle Eastern countries. But why were they so effective? What did the Greeks do to conquer such vast areas?
The Persian army's were, like the Assyrians, vast and ill trained, relying on sheer wait of massed bow fire to defeat the enemy. The Infantry were divided up into Hazarabam= 1000 which themselves where divided into Sataba= 100 which in turn were split into Dathabam= 10. On of a Dathabam would carry a Spara (shield) whilst the rest carried bows. This infantry force would be backed up by cavalry and a strong Chariot arm.
In stark contrast with the vast ill trained and tacitly complex armies of the Middle East the Greek armies were small and simplistic. They comprised of heavy infantry known as Hoplites arranged into Taxis of around 120-130 men which were grouped into Speira, which comprised of about two taxis, these in turn were grouped into fours known as Chilliarchia and these were grouped into strategia of about 4000 men. However in many ways the Greeks were more advanced than the Persians and Assyrians as their fighting style was the one adopted by one of the most famous civilisations ever, the Roman Empire. Possibly one of the best examples of the Greek military superiority over the Persians is the Battle of Marathon:
The Persian army was made up of about 19,000 foot solders and 1000 cavalry. The Athenian army was allot smaller with only 10,000 hoplite and 400 skirmishers. The Athenians set up with a deliberately weak centre and strong flanks. The Persians advanced and managed to break through the Athenian centre, however the Persian flanks were destroyed and the Athenians were able to surround and slaughter the Persians. After the battle it is said that one of the Athenians had to run all the way back to Athens to warn them of the Approaching Persian army, on arriving at Athens he relayed the news to the king and dropped dead from exhaustion! It must be noted that the only spectator of the battle was Herodotus who is known to have exaggerated his accounts as in the time history was written for entertainment more than any factual benefit so the exact numbers of the two armies are unclear.
The hoplite himself would be equipped with an Iron spear (about 2.3 meters long) and a short sword (about 2ft or 60cm long.) They also had a shield around 1 meter in diameter called a Hoplon (this is where the Hoplite get there name from.) They would wear a bronze carcass (beast plate) and leather grieves (thigh guards.) The design of the Hoplon meant that the Hoplite was entirely dependent
on the warrior on the right hand side of him for protection and this is how the phalanx formation was devised as it gave every warrior full body protection.
the Ancient Greeks were one of the most effective military machines ever.

----------------------------------------------------------

EXAMPLE writing from online;

The Ancient Greek city-states of the 5th century BCE took on one of the most powerful and dangerous empires of the ancient world in a struggle to maintain independence from the Persians. The Persians represented the opposite in ideals of everything that is Greek and threatened the end of political sovereignty, higher thinking, and innovation. Overcoming the Persians was a critical accomplishment by the Greeks in the Greco-Persian wars of the 5th century and can be attributed to their superior strategizing and exceptional leadership in time of crisis.

the army moved to Marathon which is about 26 miles from Athens.
The battle of Marathon is one of the three most important battles of the Persian Wars. The Persian army, under King Darius, camped on the beach of Marathon and planned on marching to Athens and overwhelm them with their superior numbers. Mobilizing their troops quickly, the Athenians swiftly assembled in the hills above the beach directly in the path of the Persians. Instead of attacking immediately the Persians camped on the beach for several days, allowing the Athenian generals to hold a council and decide on a course of action . The Council wisely put Miltiades in charge of the conducting of the eminent battle and he was able to find a solution to the problem of being outnumbered by the Persians. His main concern was of being enveloped by the enemy. He decided to weaken his centre lines of troops and put the extra men on the flanks of his three pronged formation. When the battle started the Persian center was able to break through Miltiades centre but their flanks were overwhelmed and the Persian phalanx collapsed upon itself. The two flanks met in the center and subdued the entire army due to Miltiades strategy and execution. The Athenians were able to capture 7 Persian ships, kill 6,400 Persians, and only lose 192 men; it was a complete victory.
Athens sent the Persians and King Darius back to Persia after the battle of Marathon with its tail between its legs. He was out-smarted by the Athenian general Miltiades even with the advantage of numbers. In 486 BCE Egypt revolted and the next year Darius died. It was not until 484 that Xerxes, his son, subdued Egypt and was able to organize a second European campaign.
The victorious Ancient Greek city-states accomplished the unthinkable. They overcame insurmountable odds by taking on the Great Persian Empire and forever ensuring the security of their homeland from further Persian invasions. They relied on their strong leadership, cooperation, and strategy to defend themselves.

---------------------------------

EXAMPLE FROM ONLINE:
The Persian Wars: How the Greeks Won
The Persian Wars were a series of conflicts fought between the Greek states and the Persian Empire from 500-449 BC
.King Darius sent another Persian expedition in 490 which destroyed Eretria and then faced the Athenians at the battle of Marathon. The Persians were defeated and forced to return home.
The Persian Empire was bigger, richer, and had more manpower, yet the Greeks were able to unite successfully to defeat them. The Greeks did, however, have several advantages which enabled them to be victorious. The Greeks defeated the Persians because of three benefits: the phalanx, the trireme, and their motivation.
The phalanx was the military system that the Greeks used to organize their troops which had been perfected through centuries of fighting one another. It consisted of a column of heavy infantry carrying long spears and swords. The spears, called pikes, were six to twelve feet long. They were not thrown but were used for thrusting. The soldiers in the phalanx were called hoplites, named after the hoplon which was the round shield they carried into battle. The hoplites wore metal armor on their chest, forearms, and shins, plus a metal helmet. These soldiers were extremely well trained. The made up for their lack of numbers with superior equipment and discipline. (2)
The Persians, on the otherhand, were able to raise an immense army due to the enormous size of their empire. However, these warriors were by far not as well trained or as well equipt as the Greek armies (2). The Persians did not fight as a unit like the Greeks did. They fought like Indians did in old western movies: they would weave and dart as individuals instead of slugging it out in infantry warfare like the Greeks (3). The Persians were courageous, but they were no match for a Greek hoplite on the battlefield. Their shield was obsolete and they wore practically no armor. One of their main weapons was the short bow, which was of little use against the heavily armored Greeks. The Persian army also consisted of cavalry which added a lot to their army mostly because of its speed, but still they were never able to defeat a well organized phalanx (2).
The superiority of the Greek phalanx can be seen by analyzing the battle which took place at Marathon in 490 BC. At this battle, the Athenian phalanx was able to defeat the entire invading Persian force without the help of the Spartans, who had promised to send their army towards Marathon but their religion forbid them to move before the moon was full (2). The Greek forces consisted of 10,000 hoplites while the Persians army was numbering in more than 120,00 men although some sources have the Persian forces at around 50,000 (4). The great Athenian general Miltiades came up with a shrewd battle plan. He decided to thin out the ranks in the center of the phalanx to strengthen the wings. During the battle, the Greek wings crushed the Persian wings and forced them to retreat. At the same time, the Persians in the middle managed to break through the weakened center of the phalanx. Instead of pursuing the retreating Persian wings, the Greek wings moved backward to attack the Persians that had broken through the Greek defenses. The Greek center then turned around so that they had the Persians surrounded. The Persians were slaughtered (5). According to the Greek historian Herodotus, the Persians lost 6400 men while te Greeks lost only 192 (4).
While the phalanx ruled on the land, the trireme ruled on the sea. The trireme was a type of warship which could be seen for the first time in the Mediterranean during the sixth century BC. The trireme completely changed war at sea. In former days sea battles were mostly fought out by soldiers who jumped from one ship onto the other. But with the introduction of the trireme the emphasis came on the battle between the ships. The trireme had a battering-ram with which it would ram opposing ships and attempt to sink them. The keel was 40 meters long and stuck out 3 meters at the front, where it was armored with bronze plates. The length-width ratio was 10:1, and ensured a minimum of resistance in the water. To get as many oarsmen in the small ship as possible the designers placed three benches above each other in a sloping way. The copper battering-ram was often shaped as the nose of a boar, while at both sides of the front often huge eyes were painted and the top of the sides were often covered with pelts. The trireme must have been a fearful sight for the enemy. (2)
The third advantage that the Greeks had over the Persians was their motivation. The Greeks were defending their homeland from a foreign invasion. They were willing to die for the land they loved and for the protection of their families. The Persians, on the other hand , were not fighting for the defense of their homeland. The Persian warriors were simply doing what their king told them to do. They had traveled to a land far from their home, a land they had little interest in. Their only motivation was to not disappoint their ruler. At that time in history the Persians ruled over much of the known world. A loss to the Greeks would not mean very much to the Persian Empire other than a hurt ego. For the Greeks however, it was do or die. They either had to be victorious or be conquered. It was this attitude that allowed the Greeks to continually defeat the Persians despite seemingly insurmountable odds. Superior military equipment and techniques can only take you so far. The Greeks wanted it more and that is why they won. (3)
Because of the phalanx, the trireme, and their motivation, the Greeks were able to defeat the mighty Persian Empire despite being severely outnumbered. For the Persians, the defeat did not mean too much. As for the Greeks, they took great pride in their success against overwhelming odds and became even more proud of their culture. Their victory marked the beginning of the Classical Period, considered to be the Golden Age of Greece (3).
------------------------------

The Persian king Darius started an offensive maneuver to gain control of Greece. The Darius sent word to the Greeks requesting "earth and water", which was a sign of surrender. Many of the city-states in the region accepted the Persian offer, but Athens and Sparta refused. The first battle of Marathon in 490 B.C. was won by the Athens, the sister city-state and second superpower of Greece. The Spartans arrived after the battle of Marathon and were surprised that the Athens had already fought off Persia and achieved a temporary victory.
The significance of the Battle of Marathon is that this was the first time that Athens and Sparta would unite together for the sake of preserving Greece against an outside threat but this would not be the last unification of the region. The main differences between these two city-states were the contrasting values: Dorian Sparta and Ionian Athens. "Sparta and the Dorians must stand for the Indo-European tradition unredeemed by the feminine influence of Crete, while Athens and the Ionians enjoyed a direct inheritance from Mycenaean civilization that had long tempered that tradition and helped them to create ideals of grace and harmony." Although Sparta and Athens had their differences in cultural values, one warrior and one artistic, the two were now banded together against one common enemy, Persia. Athens had the Greeks finest navy and Sparta was the greatest Grecian land army.
---------------------------------

--------------

please use this article as the only reference and summarize the article.

The Nature of Science

by

David S. Smith




Why Learn About Science?


It is beyond argument that our most generously educated citizens, our college graduates, are grossly undereducated when it comes to science and technology, even "ignorant" to use Lederman?s characterization. But there is no consensus at all when it comes to what to do about it, no common view of just what it is that our citizens ought and need to know about science, and no common view as to how whatever it is they ought to know can and should be taught.


With regard to what our goals should be, perhaps we can all accept something along the following lines. Our goal is to assure that our citizens know enough about science:

-so that they can tell the difference between sense and nonsense, between science and pseudoscience

-so that they can distinguish the possible from the impossible, the probable from the improbable

-so they can understand both the powers and the limits of science and technology

-so they are not at the mercy of experts-or worse, of charlatans posing as experts

-so they can be participants, not victims, in our increasingly and irreversible technological society.


David S. Saxon, Honorary Chairman of the Corporation, Massachusetts, Institute of Technology, and President, Emeritus, of the University of California, in a paper presented at the American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS), Washington, February 17, 1991.





























TABLE OF CONTENTS


TOPIC


Introduction


What is Science


Assumptions of Science


The Process of Science


Hypotheses, Theories, and Laws


Limitations of Science


The Practice of Science


Pseudoscience


Summary




The Nature of Science


INTRODUCTION


"We live in an age of high technology". This may be the most beleaguered cliche found in the current language or perhaps even the history of the language. Every newspaper, magazine, T.V. commentator and politician produces a steady stream of high tech, Bio-tech, computer tech, and miscellaneous tech. The intriguing aspect about this unremitting public focus on technology and its significance is that it is essentially an accurate view. We do indeed live in a world of technology which is increasing in its complexity and sophistication at an exponential rate. All of this technology is ultimately based upon science. Technology is applied science. Consequently we live in a society completely dominated by science and its handmaiden technology. The great paradox is that although we live in a science dominated world the great majority of our citizens have a vague idea of what science is or what it can, or cannot do. This is fully attested to by the fact that astrologers, nutritional faddists, medical quacks, and "scientific" creationists are doing such a land office business in America of the nineties. Indeed, a Medieval mystic would probably feel quite at home with many of the notions that pass as scientific in modern America. Study after study has shown that while we are one of the most technologically advanced of the industrial nations, our population as a whole is the most scientifically ignorant of these same nations.


As a citizen of a scientifically based society it is essential to be able to tell sense from nonsense. This is especially compelling for those of you who will be pursuing careers in the health related areas. As health practitioners, you must be able to assess the scientific validity of new treatments, drugs, and procedures, as well as counsel your patients on these matters.


The purpose of this essay is to provide you with the intellectual tools necessary to assess what is truly scientific and what is not.


WHAT IS SCIENCE?


While it is traditional to begin the discussion of a subject by defining the subject, we find that there is no universally accepted definition of science. Some definitions emphasize accumulating and organizations of facts, other definitions emphasize the ability to make predictions, while still others define science as a process of accumulating knowledge. Our definition is a working or pragmatic definition: science is that branch of knowledge which attempts to explain the structure and operation of the universe in terms of natural principles which are based upon verifiable evidence.


Let us now examine this definition more closely. First we see that science attempts explanation. The simple accumulation of facts is in itself not necessarily scientific. The facts must be accumulated and organized in such a fashion as to yield an explanation or understanding of some phenomenon of nature. Second we see that science deals with the universe with all of its matter and energy including ourselves. To paraphrase the noted astronomer Carl Sagan, we are a part of the universe attempting to understand the entire universe. Third we see that science relies on natural principles of explanations. These principles are natural in that they are basic properties of the universe which can be observe or deduced by human effort. Sciences do not deal with or invoke supernatural forces as explanations. Fourth, and perhaps most significant, we see that science depends upon verifiable evidence.


Once an experiment is fouled up, anything done to improve it makes it worse.


Scientific explanations require evidence which can be verified by others observers. Unique, one-time occurrences or events are usually beyond scientific methodology.

All principles are base upon tangible evidence which can be observed by means of human senses or their extensions (scientific instruments such as microscopes and telescopes). Furthermore this evidence must be verifiable. The evidence must be observable by more than one person. It should in fact be observable by all people who choose to look and who are capable of observing.


As an example, some 400 years ago the Polish scientist Copernicus inferred that the earth and planets revolved around the sun and not the other way around as previously believed. Copernicus derived this idea (or explanation) from his observations of the motions of the planets and the apparent motion of the sun. We accept his basic explanation today because many other observers have confirmed his observations and agree with his conclusions. You or I do not have to accept Copernicus? ideas or observations. We are perfectly free to repeat his observations and draw our own conclusions. This is because Copernicus? explanation is scientific. It explains phenomena using natural principles, which are based upon observations (evidence) which are verifiable by others. This is the way of all real science.


ASSUMPTIONS OF SCIENCE

Science makes only one fundamental assumption and that is that the universe is governed by natural principles, which can be discovered and understood by humans. This assumption is inherent in our definition of science.


A little reflection should convince you of the necessity of such an assumption. What would be the purpose of attempting to explain why bodies are attracted to one another (gravity) if there is no reason to believe that such a principle of attraction exists. Likewise it makes no sense to search for an attraction principle if the phenomenon is deemed to be supernatural and cannot be comprehended by humans. Science must always assume that every phenomenon of nature is governed by some natural principle which, if known, is capable of being discovered by observation and logic.


THE PROCESS OF SCIENCE


How does science work? More appropriately, how do men and women go about discovering those principles which explain the organization and operation of the universe?


Observation of the universe by means of senses leads to and accumulation of facts. A fact may be defined as a truth in nature about which the great majority of observers at a given time will agree. Now if this definition of a "fact" sounds somewhat soft it is because it is. It is now considered a fact by most persons (Flat Earth Society excluded) that the earth is round. But remember that at one time most people considered it a fact that the earth is flat. We see therefore, that while facts may be immutable, people?s concepts of them are not. In any event, science begins with these observations that we consider facts. From facts we move to explanations of the facts.


Let us again return to Copernicus. The facts that Copernicus had to deal with were the apparent motions of the sum, moon, and the planets. His explanation these facts was that these apparent motions could best be explained by the movements of the earth and other planets around the sun and the movement of the moon around the earth.


His explanation was not the only possible one, but it was the simplest one that that was consistent with the facts. This process of formulating explanations of facts is known as hypothesis formation. A hypothesis is often defined as an educated guess. It is a possible explanation of a phenomenon but necessarily the only one.


How do scientists go about forming hypothesis? There are really no set of rules. Sometimes a scientist will arrive at a hypothesis by examining all of the facts available and see what they logically suggest. At other times a hypothesis may be strictly intuitive. Hypothesis formation is the creative aspect of science. It is here that new principles are first formulated, the very beginning of explanation and understanding.


Are all hypotheses equally good? The answer here is a resounding "NO!" A good scientific hypothesis must meet two criteria.


It should be consistent with the facts or more consistent than competing explanations. By this we mean that is should explain all of the facts of a least most of them.


It must be testable, or at least testable in principle. The hypothesis should yield empirically verifiable predictions which different observers can confirm or refute.


Returning to Copernicus, we find that his hypothesis of a heliocentric (sun centered) solar system yielded predictions about the future positions of the planets on given dates. To test this hypothesis it would only be necessary to observe the predicted region of the sky on the appropriate date and see if the planet was there. Copernicus had a solid scientific hypothesis in that it agreed with all of the known facts and yielded predictions that could be tested by observation.


To be scientific, an explanation must be testable.


How one goes about testing a hypothesis depends upon the nature of the hypothesis and the predictions which logically flow from it.


There are two broad groups of hypotheses, those which are experimentally testable and those which are not experimentally testable.


Experimentally testable hypotheses lead to predictions which permit manipulations of conditions for testing. Such manipulations are called experiments. In an experiment, conditions are manipulated so that only one condition or variable (the experimental variable) will be altered. Consider the following example.


A drug is being tested as a possible headache cure. If this drug is effective then you would predict that people suffering from headaches who receive it will have their headaches disappear. Assume that 1000 headache sufferers receive this drug and 900 of them report that their headache disappeared within the hour. Would this unequivocally support the hypothesis that the drug cures headaches? The answer is no, because in this test we have no real way of knowing whether it was the drug or some other factor which caused the headaches to disappear. What is needed is an identical group of headache sufferers who do not receive the drug for comparison. This comparison control group should be identical in every respect except for the experimental variable (the drug in this case). A proper experimental design would be to take these 2000 headache sufferers and randomly divide them into two groups of 1000 each. One group (the experimental ) would receive the drug while the second group (the control) would receive a non-active tablet which is termed a placebo. In such tests with humans we must always give a placebo as humans will frequently begin to feel better (or at least differently) if they think they are supposed to. In this experiment both groups will think that they received the real drug. Now if 900 of the experimental group should report relief of their headache while only 250 of the control group reported relief we would probably judge the drug to be effective and the hypothesis confirmed. We have therefore experimentally confirmed the major prediction of the hypothesis (that being that the drug would cure headaches).


It should be noted that in experiments with humans it is usual to administer the drug and placebo in such a manner that the person administering the experiment does not know which is which and therefore cannot influence the experiment by comments or attitudes. This kind of test where neither the subjects nor the administrator know which are experimental and which are controlled is know as a double blind test and is the type utilized for evaluating drugs, vaccines, and other procedures designed for use by humans. This is then the way which we can test our first category of hypotheses.


Experiments that can not be performed improperly, will be.
In double blind experiments the person performing the experiment will not know which group is the experimental one and which is the control.


Hypotheses that deal with subjects and phenomena that cannot be manipulated are not testable by means of experiments. Testing and verification of these hypotheses must be based upon predictions which can be verified or refuted by observation in the natural world. The kind of reasoning involved would proceed like this. "If this hypothesis is correct, then we would expect to find, observe, detect, etc." Copernicus, hypothesis would be tested in this way. Obviously we cannot experimentally manipulate the orbits of planets but we can make predictions about the future positions of the planets in those orbits.


Another group of similar hypotheses are those which are historical in nature. These hypotheses explain events which have occurred in the past. Geologists frequently utilize these types of hypotheses in explaining the history of the earth. For example when one descends into the Grand Canyon a succession of layers of rock are passed. Geologists explain this layering effect by developing the hypothesis that these layers represent sediment which was deposited over immense periods of time and which formed rock layers that became exposed by the erosion of the river in cutting the canyon. If this is a true hypothesis then we would predict that we would find similar layering where other rock layers that have been exposed (we do). We would also anticipate that deep earth core samples through sedimentary rock would show similar layering, (they do). Finally it would be predicted that these same layering processes would be occurring today in appropriate areas such as river deltas and ocean floors (they are).


It may therefore be seen that experimentation is not the only valid way to test hypotheses although experimentation is usually a much simpler and quicker way when possible.


When is a hypothesis considered to be proven true? It has been realized by scientists in this century that it is really impossible to ever completely prove any scientific hypothesis unequivocally. This is due to the nature of the scientific process itself. Just because the predictions of a hypothesis have always proven true in the past does not mean that they will continue to be true in the future. It is always possible that at some future date a prediction may prove false. Until every possible predictive case has been tested we will not know if the hypothesis is universally true. As it is rarely possible to test every possible prediction of a hypothesis then it is impossible to prove it 100%.


Most scientists seek probabilities of truth. Based upon the number of predictions which have been verified a hypothesis may be considered as having a low or high probability of being true. The probability that the sum will rise in the east tomorrow morning is extremely high based upon the verified evidence accumulated. It is remotely possible that it could rise in the west or perhaps not rise at all.


Being scientists can never hope to completely prove a hypothesis true they rely instead upon attempting to falsify it. While numerous verified predictions will not prove a hypothesis to be true, several false predictions will quickly cast doubt upon its accuracy. A scientific hypothesis must be capable of being falsified, that is, yielding predictions which are capable of being shown to be false. No such false predictions may ever be found if the hypothesis is true. This concept is so important to the operations of science that it bears repeating. In science it is never possible to prove that any idea is absolutely correct, but it is possible to prove that an idea is not correct. This is the absolute core of science. Scientific explanations must by the nature of the process always be tentative and subject to revision as new facts are discovered. Consider the following example. A woman has studied crows for several years. She has observed that all crows are always black, and based upon her observations she forms the hypothesis is the prediction that any future crow will also be black. For the next ten years this scientist and other scientists examine thousands of crows and invariably find that they are always black. Then one day an albino (white) crow is found. The hypothesis has been falsified, or has it? Certainly an important generalization should not be discarded simply because one or a few exceptions are found. The great majority of people could spend their entire life observing crows without seeing a white one. It would be better to modify the hypothesis. Perhaps we would say that the overwhelming majority of crows are black or more precisely all crows are black with the exception of rare albino members which occur at a frequency of 1 per 100,000 birds. If on the other hand we found that about 50% of all crows were white we would have to reject the hypothesis as being false. This example demonstrates another important property of science: not only are scientific explanations tentative, they are also self-correcting. As new data are discovered hypotheses are modified. Consequently as science progresses we get an ever more accurate view of the universe but any and all scientific explanation must be considered tentative and subject to revision.


Certain scientific hypotheses are considered more probable than others because they have been exhaustively tested by a large number of scientists and have been found to be true in every case. Copernicus? hypothesis is one such example and today we consider such highly substantiated hypotheses as his to be true beyond a reasonable doubt.


HYPOTHESIS, THEORIES, FACTS, AND LAWS


These four terms are almost universally misunderstood by the lay public. How many times have you heard someone say "that?s only a theory." The average person equates theory with hypothesis, and idea without much evidence, and only one of several equally probable explanations. Most people perceive a progression of accuracy ranging from theory to law and then to fact. This view is quite erroneous. To a scientist, a fact is an observation about nature while a theory is a series of statements, which explains facts. To be considered a scientific theory an explanation must have a large body of facts supporting it, but theories never become facts, theories always explain facts. A hypothesis which has been tested a number of times by a number of different people and has always proved true may be accorded the status of a theory. The demarcation between hypothesis and theory is not at all clear cut.


Laws are often presented in elementary texts as theories which are universally accepted. This is somewhat erroneous as most laws relate to specific observations which occur each and every time a specific event occurs. Laws are generally much more restricted than are theories and often are derived from general theories. In one of Newton?s laws we find that for every action there is an equal and opposite reaction. A rocket engine thrust backward and the rocked moves forward. Note that the law governs a very restricted and predictable event. It is not at all accurate to conclude that laws are more accurate or correct view of the force than does Newton?s law of gravity.


The differences between hypothesis, theories, laws, and facts are frequently quite arbitrary and may be used differently by different scientists. Regardless of what we term a scientific explanation, it must be testable by observation and measurement.


No experiment you perform, however brilliantly conceived and executed, will satisfy more than 5% of the people concerned.

Highly probable scientific explanations will usually be accepted by the majority of reputable scientists.

LIMITATIONS OF SCIENCE


The current standards of living which we enjoy and the present understanding of the universe which we have developed are testimony to the immense power of science. In a span of a few thousand years we have moved out of caves and gone to the moon. It was only about 400 years ago that William Harvey discovered the circulation of blood but today we transplant genes between species. Such a staggering progression may suggest that science have no limits. This is not correct.


The great power of science lies in explanation by means of natural principles which can be verified, but these natural and verifiable aspects also set the limits of science because they permit science to only deal with what can be observed and measured. Science cannot deal with areas which are not subject to objective observation. This eliminates all areas which are based upon value systems developed by human beings. Science cannot deal with the religious or supernatural because by definition these do not provide observable predictions which can be verified or refuted. Neither can science deal with philosophy, ethics, or esthetics because these are human endeavors and not governed by natural laws. Such endeavors are belief systems which are not based upon observation and experiment. This does not mean that such endeavors are somehow inferior. On the contrary, ethics, philosophy, esthetics, and religion are some of the areas which provide life with its greatest riches. These human values are what truly set us apart from the remainder of the living world and provide that uniqueness we term human. They are not subject to scientific measurement and therefore cannot be evaluated scientifically.


Unfortunately many people do not appreciate this fact and we often see various individuals or groups of individuals attempting to justify an ethical, religious, or even political position scientifically. A good example is the current debate over abortion. It is not at all uncommon to see one side or the other of this issue stating that "scientific evidence clearly shows a fetus to be a person (or not a person) at conception." The truth is that no such evidence exists or can exists or can exist because "person" in the sense of an individual protected by the constitution is a legal-ethical definition. Science can describe what happens during embryonic development but when an embryo becomes a "person" depends upon one?s value system and is not scientifically testable. Abortion is therefore an ethical issue and not a scientific one.


The limitations of science are very obvious in the area of esthetics. It is impossible to demonstrate scientifically that one painting is better art than another. What constitutes good art is a matter of appreciation and is culturally derived. Paintings that were critically acclaimed in the Victorian period are now considered to be trite and maudlin while those considered to be monstrosities by the Victorians are now hailed as powerful works or art.


Another example of scientific limits comes from the area of religion. Most religious beliefs are based upon the existence of one or more supernatural beings. Being they are supernatural they immediately fall outside of the realm of science which can only deal with the natural and tangible. It is impossible to scientifically prove or disprove the existence of God. He/She is spiritual and not observable or measurable. Whether God exists or not is largely a matter of faith (of lack of) on the part of each individual.


Science is limited to explanations, which are based upon verifiable evidence. It does not recognize supernatural explanations because they are not subject to measurement and observations.



The three previous examples clearly show that science cannot make decisions in ethics, esthetics, or religion. These are all culturally derived values and can only be viewed from the value system of the culture in which they flourish.


The Practice of Science

The previous discussion has focused on the theoretical nature of science. The question now is how science actually done in a practical sense? How do new scientific discoveries become known? A fairly standard procedure has evolved over the years for the practice of science.

It begins with the individual scientist who has an idea (hypothesis). The scientist sets about to research and test this idea. This may involve experiments and/or observations of the natural world. Once the scientist is satisfied that she or he has discovered new knowledge, the research will be presented to other scientists for their evaluation. This almost always involved the publication of the research scientific journal.


There are tens of thousands of scientific journals world wide. Some are general, publishing research from a number of different scientific fields. The American journal Science and the British journal Nature are examples of general journals. Others tend to be highly specialized, such as the Journal of Immunology which only publishes research dealing with the science of body defense, immunology. All referred journals have a panel of subject experts known as referees. When a scientist submits his/ her research to the journal, the paper containing the research will be given to several of the referees who will evaluate it terms of its scientific merit. Very often it will be sent back to the scientist for revision. Once the referees are satisfied that the research has been conducted in a competent manner, it will be published in the journal. Then all interested scientists may read the paper, evaluate the research, and repeat it if deemed necessary. If after vigorous evaluation and testing by a number of scientists, the reported research is sustained, then the concepts will become part of the common knowledge of science.


The vigorous and rigorous evaluation that research published in refereed journals receives from scientists insures that inferior quality research will be exposed hypothesis with little factual support will be discarded.


Pseudoscience


Pseudoscience means false science. It is something that claims to be scientific but when carefully examined is found to be lacking in some or all of the commonly accepted attributes of science. Today as never before in history we are bombarded by all types of charlatans and hucksters peddling some types of nonsense which they term scientific. One of the reasons we see so much pseodoscience sit ha science in our society enjoys great prestige. Therefore to say something is "scientific" or "scientifically proven" is to give it an air of legitimacy and accuracy. The modern day "snake oil" peddler frequently cloaks himself in a mantle of self proclaimed science.


At this point you should know enough about real science to be able to distinguish it from pseudoscience, but sometimes it is difficult to do, especially if you are not familiar with the products and of concepts begin promoted. Fortunately pseudoscience frequently (but not always) possess readily identifiable characteristics. You should strongly suspect pseudoscience if the proponents of a position, product, concept, or claim exhibit one or more of the following characteristics:



There is an argument being made in support of a preconceived set of beliefs. Astrologers believe that the movement of the planets effect human events (regardless of the evidence to the contrary) and therefore their positions always reflect that fact as immutable. Science recognize no immutable positions. All scientific propositions are tentative and subject to revision and discarding if the evidence warrants.


Attacks are made upon recognized scientific concepts, evidence, methods, or scientists proper. While all science is tentative and subject to revision, there are accepted methods by which such revisions are done. Individuals who habitually attack the scientific establishment are usually attempting to draw attention away from the scientific bankruptcy of their position. Generally they lack acceptable scientific evidence for their position and attempt to build credibility by attacking legitimate science. Very frequently claim persecution by the scientific establishment for their unorthodox views. Not uncommonly they will attempt to associate themselves with some very famous scientist who may have been ridiculed at one time for his or her views. Usually this will be phrased something like they laughed at Galileo. Remember they also laughed at Curly, Larry, and Moe too! Being laughed at does not constitute scientific evidence! The way of real science is to offer alternative hypotheses in a evidence, not attacking another position or concept simply to cover up the inadequacy of the position being advocated.


Invocation of unknown or supernatural forces and/or processes. Whenever a position claiming to be scientific is based upon an unobservable or supernatural phenomena you are dealing with pseudoscience. Remember science can only deal with observable natural phenomena.


Personal testimonies. This is frequently found when dealing with claims for products which have not been scientifically tested and verified or have been tested and found not to meet the hypothesis formulated. Usually the claims go something like this: Mrs. Dull Person of Nowhere, U.S.A. claims to have lost 100 pounds of ugly fat in 30 days while taking Fast Buck diet pills. As pointed out earlier, scientific tests consist of controlled experiments utilizing random samples and double blind experimental procedures. Such personal testimonies have no scientific validity. For all we know, Mrs. Dull Person may have terminal cancer at the time of weight loss.


Appeal to authority. This is a variation of the personal testimony theme. Usually the advocate quotes a famous personality or some prestigious groups as endorsing their position. For example one might see such statements as: Famous scientist Dr. I.N.O. Nothing reports that copper bracelets work miracles on arthritis sufferers. Again there is absolutely no evidence presented that controlled and verified experiments have been performed. Simply because a person holds a doctorate does not mean that he or she cannot be stupid, ignorant, dishonest.


Utilization of bizarre or unorthodox explanations for events that can be explained in simpler conventional terms. Here we find the Bermuda Triangle and UFO advocates. There is absolutely no scientific reason to postulate that ancient astronauts built the great pyramids of Egypt. Pseudoscientific explanations that invoke such bizarre events are frequently not even testable and often border on the supernatural.


If an experiment requires "n" ingredient, there will always be "n-1" ingredients in stock.



Pseudoscience often appears to have the appearance of real science, but upon closer inspection it is usually found to be in violation of acceptable scientific methodology.

The six characteristics presented are not the only ones associated with pseudoscience but they seem to occur most often. It is sometimes very difficult to recognize pseudoscience unless one is an expert in the area. For example sometimes pseudoscience advocates will cite experiments that prove their point. Upon further inspection one may find that the experiments lacked controls, used adequate or biased samples, or have never been repeated by any reputable scientist. However at the time of the claim it may be difficult to ascertain that kind of information. Under such conditions you should always examine the credentials of the individuals making claims. Are they truly experts in the area which they advocate? Do they engage in real research in the appropriate area and is this research submitted to reputable, refereed, scientific journals for the review by other experts? The possession of a Nobel prize in physics does not give an individual any expertise in IQ testing. Remember, the ability to sound scientific is no the same as being scientific.


We will now examine four areas of pseudoscience which are currently in vogue. These are quack cures, nutritional fads, astrology, and "scientific" creationism.


Quack medical treatments- These have been with us throughout human history. They are often associated with chronic illness for which there is known scientific cure. The old "snake oil" peddler of the last century has today been replaced by a much more sophisticated and scientific appearing version, who frequently refer to themselves as practitioners of "alternative medicine. "Whenever the term " alternative medicine" appears, read unproven medicine. A good example is chelation therapy. Chelating agents are chemicals that will remove metal ions from solution by sequestering them. Legitimate usage?s of chelating agents include the removal of heavy metal toxic compounds such as lead from the blood and also the removal of excess iron from patients who have received a number of blood transfusions. "Alternative medicine" people use chelating agents to treat and prevent coronary artery disease (heart attacks) in a regime they term chelation therapy. There has never been any demonstration that chelation therapy in any way prevents or reduces coronary artery disease. Unfortunately, many people still pay good money to undergo periodic chelation therapy treatments when they could be doing much less expensive things such as altering diet and changing their exercise patterns, two items that have been demonstrated to reduce the risk of coronary artery disease and heart attacks.


Food or nutritional fads have become one of the hottest areas of pseudoscience in the last couple of decades. It has sprung up along with the increasing awareness of importance of good nutrition in health by the American public. One cannot approach a book stand without being inundated by a plethora of diets. There are diets to make you thin, diets to make fat, diets to make you sexy, and diets to make you celibate! These various diets frequently recommend just the opposite approaches to achieve the same end. One recommends a high protein diet while another advocates high carbohydrate intake. Most of them have had absolutely no scientific testing. Most are just worthless but some are downright dangerous. People have died from religiously following some of the more "far out" died plans. The only scientifically proven way to loose weight is reduce caloric intake. In addition to diet fads we have extravagant claims for the nearly magical effects of certain vitamins and minerals, even though there may not be one iota of evidence to support those claims. Too often vitamin and mineral advocates operate on the philosophy that if a small quantity is better! However, we know from real scientific research that many substances which are required for life in small quantities become toxic in large doses.


Until recently advocates of nutritional supplements could make virtually any unsubstantiated claim they wanted to because these supplements were considered foods and not drugs. Recently the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has attempted to regulate the unsubstantiated claims made by the sellers and advocates of these supplements, congress delayed the implementation of the new regulations. Whether they will ever go into effect is problematic at this time.


Finally we have the "natural phenomena". The local health food stores may sell "natural vitamin C" at a much higher price than the "inferior" synthetic variety. Actually Vitamin C (ascorbic acid) is the same chemical substance regardless of its origin and has the same effect in the body. No nutrient?s valve is enhanced simply because it was extracted from a pile of dirt!!


All reputable nutritionists agree that normal healthy people need eat only a balanced diet obtainable at any supermarket to maintain their health, vigor, and vitality. Members of the health related community have an obligation to be able to recognize genuine scientific progress in terms of nutrition from pseudoscientific quackery, and to inform their patients accordingly.


Astrology This may be the oldest of all the pseudosciences and in certain ways the most interesting. At first glance astrology seems to meet the criteria of real science, and it is a fact the modern science e of astronomy grew out of the ancient pseudoscience of astrology. Astrology seems to first to be scientific in that it is based upon observable data (planets and star positions) and it does make predictions based upon these positions. Astrology proposes that the positions of the heavenly bodies influences human affairs in a predictable manner. Astrology depends upon a detailed knowledge of planetary motions and from these movements astrologers so far. The problem occurs when the predictions fail to materialize. A careful examination of astrologer?s predictions show that the majority of them fail to come true (except for the most general prediction i.e. the sun will rise tomorrow). A true scientist would say that the hypothesis which proposes an influence of heavenly bodies on human events has been falsified. But not the astrologer; he/she simply keeps on making predictions and the true believers keep on believing, even though 90% of the prediction are not confirmed. Astrology is therefore as a belief system based upon faith and of evidence. It is not scientific.


"Scientific" creationism This last example is almost a parody of pseudoscience in that it used every technique found in the pseudoscience repertoire plus a few creations of its own (no pun intended). Creationism is the doctrine that the earth and all living organisms were supernaturally created a few thousand years ago. It is based upon a literal interpretation of the book of Genesis in the Bible and is a religious belief. As an evidence based hypothesis of the origins of the earth inhabitants it was rejected by the scientific community over 100 years ago. Most Biblical scholars and major religions also reject a literal interpretation of Genesis and look upon it as an allegory. It has been retained as a literal reading of historical events by religious fundamentalists in the US and other countries.


Creationism was until fairly recently not classified as pseudoscience because it was completely religious and made no scientific claims. In the early 1960?s a group of creationists began calling themselves "scientific" creationists and proposed that the creation events as spelled out in Genesis could be sustained scientifically with out reference to the Bible. Unfortunately for their beliefs, the available evidence complete refutes their thesis. Never-the-less their views in one guise or another, largely in the hope of introducing their religion views into the public school curriculum.


Creationism as a religious belief can?t be promoted in the schools because of the constitutional prohibitions involving church and state. However, if it could be established as a scientific thesis, then it could be taught as an alternative to evolutionary theory, and this is what "scientific" creationism is all about.


"Scientific" creationists propose the their "model" is as scientifically valid as the voluntary concept and therefore should be given equal time of fairness and in the spirit of scientific open mind. This is an appealing view to the public which believes in fair play and the right of all ideas to be given equal time. Scientific theories rely on observable evidence and therefore do not require consideration of ideas which have been refuted by that evidence, no matter how much we may wish them to be true. Creationists have never presented any scientific acceptable evidence n support of their position. The bulk of their "research" has been confined to attacking legitimate science and pointing out the flaws that they perceive in evolunatry theory.

In their view evolutary biology and all other science (chemistry, physics, geology, astronomy) which support it is flawed an therefore their preconceived position must be true. The great scientific flaw in "scientific" creationism is not the lack of evidence to support it or even the great weight of evidence against it. Rather it is the impossibility of scientifically testing it. The fundamental assertion (belief) of creationism is that all living things, (plus the earth and universe) were created by a supernatural creator using UNKNOWN PROCESSES that cannot be verified or refuted by scientific methods. Therefore according to the scientific creationists themselves, origins can never really be known or understood. As this completely takes creationism beyond the realm of science (it contradicts the fundamental assumptions of science) the term "scientific" creationism is an oxymoron , a self contradiction.


The previous examples demonstrate that pseudoscience generally attars a thesis which (1) has not been scientifically tested (2) has been tested and found false (3) is not capable of being scientifically tested. It is critically important that you as a member of a society which is so highly dependent upon science and societies, be able to recognize the difference between real science and pseudoscience.

SUMMARY



Science is the branch of knowledge which attempts to explain the structure and operation of the universe I terms of natural principles which are based upon verifiable evidence.


Science makes one fundamental assumption. The universe is governed by natural principles which can be discovered and understood by humans.


Science progresses in understanding by formulating testable hypothesis or tentative explanations of facts and is testable, either by experiment to by observation.


Experimental testing of hypothesis always requires a control, a group of objects or things which are treated the same as the experimental group with the exception variable which is under test. In experiments involving humans, experiments must be double blinded, the person actually performing the experiment doesn?t know which group is experimental and which is control.


Because it is impossible to know what the future facts or data may indicate, it is impossible to scientifically prove any hypotheses unequally. It is possible falsify a hypothesis and this is what most hypotheses testing is directed towards.


Because it is impossible to prove absolutely any hypothesis, all scientific explanation must be tentative an subject to modification with new evidence. New evidence may suggest stings in existing hypothesis which make them more accurate. Sincere is therefore self correcting.


Scientists practice science by submitting their research results for publication in refereed scientific journals where it may be critically examined and critiqued by their colleges.


Pseudoscience is false science. It may use the terminology of science an claim to be scientific, but when examined closely, it will be found to violate one or more of the acceptable principles of science.

The main foreign enemy of the Greeks for several centuries was the Persians. Discuss the origin of that enmity on the part of the Persians and its development through time. Why did the Persians keep fighting the Greeks? How did the method of fighting change over time? Why? And how did this enmity effect Greek history? What might have been different if the Persians had not been the enemy of the Greek city-states?

Use the following as sources: "Wars of the Ancient Greeks" by Victor Hanson; "Penguin Historical Atlas of Ancient Greece" by Robert Morkot; and "Ancient Greece: A Political, Social and Cultural History" by Sarah Pomeroy, Stanley Burnstein, Walter Donlan, and Jennifer Roberts.

I need a two page report about the work of art on ?Statue of Hercules? found in the website below. Also, I need the report to relate to the time period and culture. I also need a bibliography (anything can be used) and there must be at least two. Quotes can be used, no more than three quotes. The report must show understanding of the artwork and the time in which it was made. Thank you.

http://www.getty.edu/art/collections/objects/o7638.html

ADDITIONAL INFO WHICH MIGHT BE USEFUL:

Unknown, sculptor; after the School of Polykleitos, sculptor
Roman, about A.D. 125
Marble
70.AA.109

The Greek hero Herakles carries a club over his left shoulder and holds a lionskin in his right hand. These objects help identify the figure, since Herakles nearly always appears with a club and the skin of the Nemean Lion, which he killed as his first labor. As is typical for depictions of Greek heroes, the young Herakles is shown nude, since male nudity was considered the highest form of beauty by the Greeks. No other god or hero is as frequently depicted in Greek and Roman art as is Herakles.

The Lansdowne Herakles very likely was inspired by a lost Greek statue, probably from the school of Polykleitos in the 300s B.C. Found near the ruins of the villa of the Roman emperor Hadrian at Tivoli outside Rome, this statue was one of numerous copies of Greek sculpture commissioned by Hadrian, who loved Greek culture. The statue was named for Lord Lansdowne, who once owned the Herakles and displayed it in his home in London.

the middle ages is the period between the ancient and modern eras of world history. Compare and/or Contrast the historical development of the midieval world-its goverment, economy, social structure, religion, and culture(intellectual accomplishments)- for Europe and Japan
Include in your discussion and discription an account of:
A) the rebuilding of the west and unification of japan
B)feudalism-East and West(goverment)
C)manorialism_East and West(economy)
d)the growth of cities and trade-East and West(social)
e) the role/importance of Christianity in the west and Buddhism in Japan(religon)
f)development of the arts and literature-East and west

HINT: defie the terms as appropriate, pay attention to the question, and cover all parts of it.


HINT: it is not necessary to write everthing you know about a topic. Read the question carefully and concentrate on what it''s asking. Do not write information that is irrelevent just because you might find it intresting. Remember you will be graded on what you say, and how well you say it, and whether you answer the question asked. Write an outline to help collect your thoughts. Develop your essay from an introduction that addresses the focus of the question, explain the issues in the body, and sum up in the conclusion. remember be specific with comapring and contrasting.

Main idea of the paper:
How does I.M. Pei incorporate traditional elements of jiang nan residential housing style into the contemporary design of the Suzhou Museum.

1. general study of the traditional jiang nan residential house style in china.
-white washed plastered walls
- simple color - dark grey clay roofing
-a type of "siheyuan" (courtyard houses in china) with smaller courtyard due to dense population
- wood beam structure
- water and stones are also very important elements in Jiang nan architecture
- also talk about Pei's interest in Suzhou gardens because his ancestry was originate in suzhou.
2. I.M Pei's concept was to preserve the tradition of jiangnan style architecture. (here is the quote by I.M. Pei "you don't need me, you don't need a modern building, what you need is a plan for the preservation of the city."

3. things that i would like to include in the essay of Suzhou Museum:
- completed 2006
- 10,700 square metre
- Formerly residence of the Zhang prince of Taiping Heavenly Kingdom
- Museum is divided into 3 sections:
Centre:entrance, entrace hall, main garden
West Wing: Exhibitions
East Wing: admins
- Site plan shows that the pond (water) is a the heart of the design (again ties back to how Pei uses traditional elements in contemporary design since suzhou is abundance in water resources)
-Symmetry - key element of chinese architecture
- Window/opening that frame views of the outside environment
-Rocks-important in suzhou tradition
- how Pei use rock to from a scene according to painting in Song Dynasty
-Use of materials in the museum:
- Pei's museum adopted the primary color of jiangnan residence (What and grey). Instead of using whitewashed plaster wall and dark grey clay tile, Pei used grey granite to replace the tiles.
- traditional roof beam structure was replaced by steel structure
- metal sun screen with wood panels instead of traditional carved windows lattice -> more sophisticated.


Here are some citations that might be helpful:

The gray and white forms recall those of the region, but they remain resolutely modern. (Philip Jodidio and Janet Adams Strong, I.M. Pei Complete Works, 2008 Rizzoli International Publications, Inc. 311)

the Suzhou Museum, carefully set into the ancient heart of the city, represents a sensitive and successful call to respect the past while turning to the future. (Philip Jodidio and Janet Adams Strong, I.M. Pei Complete Works, 2008 Rizzoli International Publications, Inc. 311)

you dont need me, you dont need a modern building. What you do need is a plan for the preservation of the city (Philip Jodidio and Janet Adams Strong, I.M. Pei Complete Works, 2008 Rizzoli International Publications, Inc. 311)

The classical Suzhou garden is a microcosm of the world depicted in the basic elements of water, stone, plants, and buildings. (Philip Jodidio and Janet Adams Strong, I.M. Pei Complete Works, 2008 Rizzoli International Publications, Inc. 312)

I had an opportunities to try to do something that blends with the old city and yet at the same times shows we are in the twenty-first century. There was not question about the material ??" they would be plaster, stone, or tile. It was going to be gray and white. (Philip Jodidio and Janet Adams Strong, I.M. Pei Complete Works, 2008 Rizzoli International Publications, Inc. 312)

When you are looking for old architecture in China, there is not that much of it. There are palaces like the Forbidden City or Buddhist temples and monasteries. The rest is made up of villages and towns where people live and work. In cultural buildings, garden and building are one - they are not separate. I cant imagine doing a building in China without a garden. There is no distinction between garden and rooms; they are joined together. The garden cannot be big - they are always on a human scale.

Big houses in China are measured by how many courtyards they have. The family is the basic unit, but they do not wish to flaunt wealth, so they build high walls. Inside, there are courtyards after courtyards. You have a tradition of gardens behind walls.

Chinese gardens consist of three elements ??" water, rocks, and plants. There is no such thing as a lawn in China. You dont go out in the garden and play badminton. The kind of Western life in the garden does not exist. People like to meander and to lose themselves in a garden.

Although some lines, colors, or materials may openly echo local usage, what Pei has sought in Suzhou and elsewhere, is a sublimation of tradition in architecture that bridges the chasm between the brutal march of Chinas new skyscrapers and its real roots, its culture. (Philip Jodidio and Janet Adams Strong, I.M. Pei Complete Works, 2008 Rizzoli International Publications, Inc. 320)



Useful Websites:

http://chinablog.cc/2009/08/jiang-nan-residential-houses-the-spirit-of-water/

http://architecture.about.com/od/greatbuildings/ig/Museum-Architecture/Suzhou-Museum.htm


http://www.szmuseum.com/szbwgen/html/xw/2006/0930/157.html

http://home.wangjianshuo.com/archives/20071206_suzhou_museum_by_im_pei.htm


http://hubpages.com/hub/I-M-Pei-and-the-New-Suzhou-Museum

http://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://www.china-landscape.net/UserFiles/QQ(2).jpg&imgrefurl=http://www.china-landscape.net/wz/640.htm&usg=__DJPYyyhIohA4nWSyirArvPGbKi4=&h=333&w=342&sz=18&hl=en&start=40&um=1&itbs=1&tbnid=H8zzG6YIxruNZM:&tbnh=117&tbnw=120&prev=/images%3Fq%3D%25E8%2598%2587%25E5%25B7%259E%25E5%258D%259A%25E7%2589%25A9%25E9%25A4%25A8%25E5%259C%2596%25E7%25B4%2599%26start%3D20%26um%3D1%26hl%3Den%26client%3Dsafari%26sa%3DN%26rls%3Den%26ndsp%3D20%26tbs%3Disch:1

Hi!

Here are the specs on this Art History assignment:

BASICS
All sources must be correctly and uniformly cited. For information on citation, please follow the link to the Chicago Manual of Style. In art history, we always use either footnotes or endnotes, not in-text parentheses.

Please include a bibliography on a separate page (not included in word count).

Use New Section Headings (note the Italics)

MUST have a clear introduction and conclusion!

If you include a quote longer than 100 words or 8 lines of body text, set it off by indenting 1 from the left and .5 from the right sides of the text block, that way its clear that you are using someone elses words.1

1 Footnotes appear at bottom of the page (use the Insert>reference>footnote from the top menu). They are typically single-spaced and in a 10-point version of the font used for the main body of the paper.

TOPIC
Compare and contrast a pair of monuments dating from the early development of Islamic architecture. Discuss how each building employs space, surface, and iconography to communicate its function and to underscore its Islamic identity. Particularly focus on the similarities and divergences between the construction of secular space and the construction of sacred space within an Islamic context.

Choose ONE monument from each column (compare and contrast the TWO you choose)

SACRED SECULAR
Dome of the Rock Mshatta palace, Jordan
Great Mosque, Cordoba Dar al-Kalifa, Samarra
Friday Mosque, Fahrad, Iran Madinat al-Zahra, Cordoba
Great Mosque, Kairouan Qasr al-Hayr (West and/or East)
Sulaybiya Mausoleum, Samarra Khirbat al-Mafjar, Jordan

Some of the readings may be particularly useful for reference:
Nuha N N. Koury, The Dome of the Rock, the Kaba, and Ghumdan: Arab Myths and Umayyad Monuments. Muqarnas, vol. 10 (1993), 57-65.
Doris, Behrens-Abouseif, The Lion-Gazelle Mosaic at Khirbat al-Mafjar, Muqarnas vol. 14 (1997), 11-18.
D. Fairchild Ruggles, The Mirador in Abbasid and Hispano-Umayyad Garden Typology, Muqarnas, vol. 7 (1990), 73-82

I will be attaching images of the monuments.

Thank you for your time and consideration,
Kim Starley

I need a research paper written on Cleopatra VII, the last great ruler of Egypt as a nation, for my Ancient Rome class. I would also like Writergrrl101* to write it, if possible. My thesis statement revolves around freeing her from some of the multiple identities that many of the primary sources (especially those sympathetic to Augustus) have imposed upon her such as femme fatale and harlot, arguing instead that she was a sensual, exotic, intelligent, and calculating woman who realized that she could not fulfill her destiny without a partnership with Rome (specifically affairs with Julius Caesar and Mark Antony). My paper needs to start out with some historical context or background information and then move on to the research based on the primary resources defending the thesis, with a concluding paragraph(s). My primary resources for this paper need to be "Plutarch's Lives," Virgil the "Aeneid," Dio Cassius "The Roman History:The Reign of Augustus," Suetonius "The Twelve Caesars," Appian "The Civil Wars," and Lucan "The Civil War." My secondary sources need to come from the books: "The Reign of Cleopatra" by Stanley Burstein, "Cleopatra-A Biography" by Michael Grant, and "Cleopatra: Last Queen of Egypt" by Joyce Tyldesley. Thank you.

(http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/ancient/aristotle-politics1.html)

what are the three forms of government delineated by Aristotle? Which one does he think is the most preferable?
There are faxes for this order.

I have chosen the poet that should be used for this task, and it is WH Auden.
The task is given below, I will do the presentation of the assignment I just need you to write the script to it. Remember it is a Radio announcement!

Unit: Making Sense of a wider world
Integrating device: 20th century poetry
Genre: Expository Oral

Task: You are to take on the role of a radio presenter for a youth arts program. You are the host of a program called ?The Amazing Moderns?. This week?s episode is to focus on a modern poet. The program SHOULD EXPLAIN:
-The context in which the poet was writing and some background to modern poetry.
-The invited reading of 2 of his poems, including the discourses that underpin them
-the context in which it is now being read (How do you react to the poetry)
-The relevance of the modern poet?s poetry towards a young audience.

You should avoid any of the ?war poets? in this task.

ROLE: Young poetry reader, Radio presenter

Audience: Young arts audience aged between 17 and 25 (NEEDS TO BE AIMED for them, so it needs to maintain their attention)

Purpose:
-to make sense of the world around us
-To critically examine WH Auden and his poetry
-To present an informative and entertaining radio program. (Since this task is an oral i will present it and I just need the script.)

Conditions:
-Research must be referenced in the script and attached in the bibliography

Length: 6 to 8 minutes which equates to around 1100 words.

Needs to be thoroughly justified about the structure, language, meaning of the poets.
Needs to display that you are an expertise in these poems.
The script requires use of cohesive devices.
Script needs to be in-depth, it is a reflection; providing evidence to support your idea.
REMEMBER it is aimed for a 17-25 year age group.
When describing/talking about a particular poem give information about the use of (if any) similes, metaphors, Personification, Apostrophe, Paradox, Oxymoron, Hyperbole, Antithesis, Epigram, word of phrase repetition, Alliteration, assonance, Onomatopoeia, imagery, symbolism, Allegory, Trochaic, Dactylic, Anapestic, amphibraic, spondee, the way structure if it uses stanza?s or something else and if there are any others...

Because this is poetic Analysis, these questions will help
-What is the poet saying
-How is the poet saying it
(How to analyse a poem; What is it about, How is it said (which techniques are utilised), Why (what?s going on in the world with reference to the author), So what or basically Why is it relevant today

One of the two poets that should be mentioned is ?The Fall of Rome?

If there are any problems please contact me by email!
I've check'd the "provide additional Material option" for email in case there is something that i need to send, and if there are problems in understanding what i mean when i say Onomatopoeia or something else for example.
and im not sure what the appropriate amount of sources that you should site, so i just put in randomly 3.

Essay must be based on both the ancient evidence and modern scholarship. The essay is required to reference the ancient evidence and secondary literature thoroughly. A bibliography of all ancient and modern items consulted. Do not use general or encyclopedic style websites as sources.

"Modern scholarship" refering to work published in academic journals or monographs.
There are faxes for this order.

Paper must reflect from the book which i will message the write the information for that and answer this question in full
write about the similarities or differences in the technical and architectural developments of complex societies in Harappa and Ancient China?
There are faxes for this order.

4 separate questions to be asked. Given a page each. Number of references is not critical. Please keep separate and follow prompt when answering question. Some may require a little more and some a little less..

Each 1/2 to 3/4 page long and all kept separate.

1.What made the Greek civilization so great? What made the Greeks so great?

Choose one contribution of the Greek civilization that you think was the greatest achievement, one that made them stand out from other civilizations studied thus far.
Explain why you think that contribution was so special.

2. WAS GREECE THE FIRST WESTERN CIVILIZATION

Some have argued, that Western Civilization, in the sense that it saw itself as different from "the East" truly began with the Greeks. Herodotus himself contrasted the West as representing freedom, and the East as representing oppression. What do you think provide reasons

Would you agree with this argument (that Western Civilization truly began with the Greeks)? Why or why not? Please give examples to support your ideas. You should post more than once-- so feel free to support or argue against other posts politely



3. BACKGROUND Imagine that we are in classical Greece, attendees of a great banquet held in Olympia, after a day of watching the games. The host has invited people from all different parts of Greece to take part-- Athenians, Spartans, Thebens, Cretens, etc have all attended (you may choose which city state you are from). After the meal is concluded, some of the guests (us) have stayed behind to engage in philosophical discussion. You are free to draw on Plato, Aristotle, or Socrates, or other classical Greek philosophy in support of your arguments (any good Greek intellectual would know their works by heart, but you can use the internet to do your own research).

Keep in mind, your "character" would only have the knowledge available to a person of the ancient Greek world. Using modern ideas would not be appropriate for this forum. When you post, please identify which city state your "character" is from, and keep that in mind when you decide what you are going to say.

QUESTION TO BE ANSWERED During the evening, the host of the banquet, puts up the following topics for discussion:
Is man by nature, altruistic and honest?
Is Democracy the best form of government?
Is the world around us "real" or are we all just "shadows" in some great cosmic dream?

4. What do the myths of ancient Greece tell us about ancient Greek culture? Please give some specific example

topic: use of yiddish in jewish ultra orthodox communities (haredi) as a first language in contrary of the use of local vernacular (israel - hebrew, NY & London - english). in hassidic communities yiddish is more common, in litvish (yeshivish) local vernacular is more common.
why the difference? what functions does yiddish serve in those communities? effects of vernacular pressure on use of yiddish. identity issues, religious language related issues (ancient hebrew - loshn koydesh is considered holy. what's the yiddish condition in this aspect?), heritage issues ("haymish"), cultural isolation - yiddish as a means to create bounderies (in-out, out-in). diglossia (or triglossia).
please include general sociolinguistic material about: language & ethnicity / group identity / collective identity / religious identity.
include footnots, at least 25 cited sources (reference articles&books folowing - bottom), research hypothesis, abstarct, conclusions.


refernces:

1) Yiddish & Ultra Orthodox Jews:

- International Journal of the Sociology of Language, 1999, 138. (Eds: Isaacs, M & Glinert, L.H.), Mouton De Grouyter.
- Isaacs, Miriam/ Haredi, haymish and frim: Yiddish vitality and language choise in a transnational, multilingual community. pp 9-30.
- Isaacs, Miriam/ Contentious partners: Yiddish and Hebrew in Haredi Israel. pp 101-121.
- Glinert, Lewis H./We never changed our language: attitudes to yiddish acquisition among Hasidic educators in Britain. pp 31-52.
- Abraham, Joan E./ Perceptions of English learning in a hasidic jewish sect. pp 53-80.
- Bogoch, Bryna/ Gender, literacy, and religiosity: dimentions of Yiddsh education in Israeli government-supported schools.

- Belcove-Shalin Janet S, editor (1995): New World Hasidim: Ethnographic Studies of Hasidic Jews in America. Albany: SUNY Press.
- Fishman Joshua A. (1981), Never Say Die! A Thousand Years of Yiddish in Jewish Life and Letters. Mouton Publishers, The Hague.

2) Sociology of Yiddish:

- International Journal of the Sociology of Language, 1987, 67. (Ed: Fishman Joshua A.), Mouton De Grouyter.
- International Journal of the Sociology of Language, 1980, 24. (Ed: Fishman Joshua A.), Mouton De Grouyter.
- Fishman Joshua A. (1991): Yiddish: Turning To Life. John Benjamins Publishing Company, Amsterdam/Philadelphia.
- Zisenwine David: Jewish Culture ? Identity and Language.
- Ben-Refael Eliezer: Language and Social Division ? the Case of Israel.
- Studies in the Linguistic Sciences, 2001, 31, 1, Spring, 213-229. The Paradox of Creativity in Diaspora: the Yiddish Language and Jewish identity. King Robert D.
- Mitchel Bruce: Yiddish and Hebrew Revival: A New Look at the Changing Role of Yiddish.

3) History of Yiddish:

- International Journal of the Sociology of Language, 1991, 91. (Ed: Fishman Joshua A.), Mouton De Grouyter.
- Fishman Joshua A. (1981): Never Say Die! A Thousand Years of Yiddish in Jewish Life and Letters. Mouton Publishers, The Hague.
- Fishman Joshua A. (1991): Yiddish: Turning To Life. John Benjamins Publishing Company, Amsterdam/Philadelphia.
- Goldsmith Emanuel S. (1997): Modern Yiddish Culture ? The Story of the Yiddish Language Movement. Fordaham University Press, NY.

4) Sociolinguistics: group/ethnic/religious identity:

- Fishman Joshua A. (1989): Language & Ethnicity in Minority Sociolinguistic Perspective. Clevdon ? Philadelphia, Multilingual Matters LTD.
- Fishman Joshua A. (1997): In Praise of the Beloved Language ? A Comparative View of Positive Ethnolinguistic Consciousness. Berlin ? New York, Mouton De Grouyter.
- Edwards John (1985): Language, Society and Identity. Oxford, Basil Blackwell Ltd.
- Gumperz John J. (1982): Language and Social identity. Cambridge University Press.
- Abrams Dominic, Hogg Michael A.: Social Identity ? Constructive and Critical.
- Dannenberg C. J.: Sociolinguistic Construct of Ethnic Identity.

There are faxes for this order.

this paper needs to be about the rise and fall of chaco canyon(ancient anasazi) try to focus more on the rise of chaco and chaco at it's peak. also, please try not to use much info or quotes from 'anasazi america' by david stuart because that is the book we are using in class. since i could not find anything in your data bases on chaco or anasazi please email me once you get this order so i know whether or not you will be able to do it in time

Migration/Site Analysis:

-- Apply the scientific method to paleontological data from excavation sites to characterize the impact of humans on biodiversity and ecosystems
-- Critically evaluate findings from paleontological, linguistic, and genetic studies to describe changes in the geographical distribution of gene expression, innovation (tool use), culture (art, architecture), and language across and within human societies

In this assignment, you will select an archaeological excavation site for human remains from the list below,

Altamira Caves, Spain
Gravettian Culture
Apollo 11 Cave, Namibia
Lascaux Cave, France
Arnhem Land, Northern Territory
Meadowcroft Rock Shelter, Pennsylvania
Banpo, China
Monte Verde, Chile
Bobongara, New Guinea
Olsen-Chubbock, Colorado
Bradshaw Paintings, Western Australia
Pamir Knot
Catal Huyuk Anatolia (Turkey)
(Peking Man) Zhoukhoudian, China
Chauvet-Pont-d'Arc Cave, France
Qafzeh Cave
Clovis, New Mexico
Shanidar Cave, Iraq
Cro-Magnon and Dordogne Valley (France)
Another site of interest to you
Dolni Vestonice, Czech Republic
El Castillo Cave, Spain
Eurasian and Iranian steppes
Fertile Crescent
Franchthi Cave, Greece

Write one (1) page long outline of your research paper, with at least five annotated references from the primary, scientific, research literature

*** In this assignment, you will address the following topics associated with the excavation site that you selected:

1. Facts and findings (species of hominid and basic findings)
2. Advances, innovations, or unique findings for this site (expand discussion of findings)
3. Interpretations of findings
a. Age of occupation
b. Culture and society
c. Migration path (who are the people, and where did they originate before reaching this place?)
d. Impact of humans on local biodiversity and ecosystem
4. Significance of this site in the overall view of human evolution, migration, and impact
5. Controversies or related, unanswered questions about this site
6. References should be in full APA format and should be properly cited in APA format in the text body. Note: You should use primary and secondary research articles, textbooks, scholarly magazines, and reputable websites as reference sources for your paper.
7. Engaging graphics or diagrams must be incorporated to show the geographic location as well as interesting findings, such as innovations like new tools or devices. Each graphic (image) or diagram should be numbered and should contain sufficient labeling to be meaningful to the reader. Each figure should be accompanied by rich, detailed descriptions in the text body.

please, You are to choose 5 relevant articles for my research and
synthesise an analysis of them in a 2,000 word essay.also,just use my resources that i attached .
I like to give you summary about my tobic:
This practice based research will explore the vocabularies and use of traditional architectural details from Southern Saudi Arabia and will create a body of work that combines unconventional materials and the patterns and rhythms of this embedded Islamic practice. While being anchored in Saudi Arabia culture. These designs will be related to contemporary Western artistic concepts like expression from innovation, distinctive interpretation, freedom and rebellion. Together the two traditions will pave the way for a new artistic prospective in Saudi Arabia.
When I was an MA student, I was touched with the forms of the traditional architectural decorative forms of Southern Saudi Arabia, but unfortunately, I did not have enough time to conduct extensive investigation. Therefore, when I started my PhD studies, I have observed traditional architectural decorative were rich in aesthetical values but it needs some efforts to find ways to exhibit this kind of art and to introduce. Also, I found it a good chance to satisfy my earlier interest by conducting deep investigation on new contemporary ideas.

The quality of the traditional architectural decorative and the sophistication of the design were generally related to local factors as well as the standing of the owner. Traditional architectural decorative which include dry-stone constructions are decorated with the raw quartz stones placed in geographic pattern. They are stone and mud houses which greet the visitor reflecting the gray tones of the desert with wonderfully variegated facades. These materials are not relevant for the new industrial Saudi Arabia. However, Saudi Arabia is changing. Currently, It is becoming industrialized, cities are growing and the traditional relationship between small communities and the land has altered. Saudi culture works hard works to reveal the identity of he traditional architectural decorative and thus maintain the continuity of art in Saudi Arabia by putting contemporary art in historical context .
My research will involve both academic research into contemporary and past art and craft practices in Saudi Arabia ,and artistic exploration into the incorporation of unconventional materials into works relevant for todays society. So, I will use unconventional materials such as ,waste and discarded materials, leather, wood, plastic, glassetc . This is the new point in my work.
I would like the audience to see the echo of the past in the contemporary designs and in addition to see the extension I invented to follow on forms the forms of traditional architecture decorative. I have translated the traditional architectural decorative hinting at contemporary. Finally , I think that this research is an opportunity for me to clarify my position as an artist , This is a crucial process as the artist should sanely have his / her own philosophy in order to be able to defend his / her work.



Aims and objectives :
The main aim of this research create a body of work that combines unconventional materials and the patterns and rhythms of this embedded Islamic practice. While being anchored in Saudi Arabia culture. These designs will be related to contemporary Western artistic concepts like expression from innovation, distinctive interpretation, freedom and rebellion. Together the two traditions will pave the way for a new artistic prospective in Saudi Arabia.
In order to understand the contemporary and historical context for my artistic practice I will enquire into the current status of art works in Saudi Arabia :
I will review my understanding of the artistic concepts of the traditional architectural decorations so as to generate innovative designs in my own work.
I will research the role of the unconventional materials in the ideological culture of Saudi society and as used by Saudi artists.
I will research the incorporation and manipulation of unconventional materials in contemporary Western art and consider the cultural difference between those of Saudi Arabia and those in Western Art practices.
I will research the artifacts of contemporary ideas whose works are relevant to my subject. To understand how material, techniques and modern theory affected the contemporary ideas
Research methodology :-
The methods used will include: on a theoretical and practical program. The theoretical part will focus on an investigation of Traditional architectural decorations of Southern Saudi Arabia. To understand deeply the patterns and designs that characterized it . This will be through:
- Literature reviews, books, articles and journals concerned with the traditional decorations.
- Interviews with Saudi artists concerned with the artifacts of contemporary art and contemporary Western whose works are relevant to my study. This work shall be conducted through interviews with British artists in their studios or at public exhibitions.
- The practical work will be comprise a number of create a body of artwork (in particular contemporary sculptures ). each piece using different kinds of unconventional materials. I will consider with phenomenology philosophy one of the bases for my work as it will help in expanding my imagination and to present a unique prospective unfamiliar to those which both the Saudi artist and Saudi viewer are familiar with. The same point of view was discussed by Bachelard (1957) he applied the method of phenomenology to architecture basing his analysis not purported origins, but on lived experience of architecture.


There are faxes for this order.

Requirements:

Minimum Word Count: 500-600 Words (5-6 paragraphs)

3-4 Sources using MLA or APA format

Description:

The purpose of the discovery essay is construct an expository or persuasive essay that explains a discovery you have made in any of your cyber journeys from any one of the learning modules up to this assignment due date. Your essay should reflect your interest, synthesis, and analysis of a relevant subject to this course and be in the form of an academic essay.

Discovery essays are your chance to relate your cyber journeys into the humanities. This can experiences in music, painting, history, ideas, the fine arts, or social movements which tie into the periods of time and cultures we are studying. Try to connect your ideas to broader social and historical issues if possible. Please avoid summary. Instead use synthesis, analysis, and evaluation to explore your chosen topic of discovery.

Please follow the conventions of the five paragraph or multiparagraph essay. Introduce needed background and lead into your thesis in your introduction. Develop your thesis throughout 3-5 body paragraphs and then end with a summary/conclusion. Maintain a third-person, objective point of view required in academic discourse. Remember that this is your discovery already so you don't have to use first person voice.

Explore Writing Resources to cover a variety of areas in writing the essay.

Regardless of length, all essays should have the following structure:

Title: Make an original title that reflects your thesis or main idea.
Voice:Use third-person, objective voice, avoid 1st person and slang.
Introduction: Introduce your topic and lead into your thesis.
Thesis Statement: Develop your essay around a thesis or main idea.
Body Paragraphs: (3-5) Begin body paragraphs with topic sentences.
Documentation: Use parenthetical citations for historical details, dates and quotes.
Conclusion: Summarize main points and re-state thesis.
Be sure to cite the source of your information using parenthetical citations and a reference or Works Cited page. See the resources in Documentation if you are unfamiliar with using parenthetical citations and a matching Works Cited (MLA or APA format)

Suggestion: Use at least 2-3 sources outside of your textbook. Limit Wikipedia to just one of your sources.

Send your essay directly to the instructor using the dropbox below. Please send your essay as an attachment. Send your Essay and Works Cited together in the same document. (Save your file in Rich Text Format if you use a program other than MS Word.)

Subject: Myth & Mythmaking, Ancient Myth investigating archetypal theory.

Essay Topic: "Compare the manifestation of the trickster (archetype) in The Epic of Gilgamesh and Pan's Labyrinth.


This is an analytical essay that shows the use of archetypal theory in the interpretation of myth.

Course Description and Objectives
Broadly speaking, this course is an examination of the person within a Christian worldview. More specifically, we will consider the function of worldviews, the meaning of a Christian worldview, and the implications of a Christian worldview for the understanding of persons and their role in modern society. In as much as contemporary worldviews have been shaped extensively by developments in science, as well as by historical influences from philosophy, religion, and culture broadly defined, an interdisciplinary approach will be taken.
The belief that persons are more than simply physical bodies is ancient. Students in this course will (1) examine ways this belief has been expressed in religious and philosophical tradition, including exploration of the meaning of terms such as soul, mind, and consciousness, (2) discuss relevant research in the physical and behavioral sciences, and (3) consider the meaning of persons within a Christian worldview. In seeking these objectives we will review the historical relationship between science and religion, and we will consider the ways that scientists and philosophers have related the concepts of body, and mind, or consciousness, and soul. We will consider cosmological issues including the big bang theory, the age of the earth, quantum physics, evolution, and design. We will look at new developments in genetics and reproduction, and their implications for our view of the person. And we will reflect on the way our view of ourselves is affected by and reflected in media and the arts. In all of this students will be encouraged to consider different perspectives taken by Christians, and to examine their own worldview and the meaning of personhood, as well as the implications of these for practical moral, ethical, and lifestyle decisions.
THE RESEARCH PAPER
The research paper should articulate your worldview, giving special attention to the Who are we? questions (e.g., Who am I? Where am I? Whats wrong? What is the remedy? etc.). You should also deal with at least three of the topical content areas covered in the course. That is, show how your position relates to at least three different areas such as philosophy, biblical anthropology, biology, evolution, genetics, neuropsychology, the new physics, technology, or some of the several cultural topics discussed. For example, in discussing modern genetics the answers to the Who are we? questions might be shown to determine ones ethical and practical conclusions regarding genetic mapping, cloning, etc.. And conversely, developments in these areas might influence your answers to the basic questions about the person.
Your paper should contain references where appropriate (APA style is preferred), and a complete list of references at the end. However, since this is primarily a personal statement, references may not be necessary. N.B.
Further Comments on the Research Paper
Some possible points to consider
WORLDVIEW
Worldview questions: What is a worldview? Why is it important? What is my worldview, and how is it different from other worldviews? What is the role of tolerance, pluralism, and multiculturalism in our society and in my worldview? Who am I? Where am I? Whats wrong? What is the remedy? What time is it? etc. What does the image of God mean?
TOPICAL APPLICATIONS
Cosmology: How old is the Earth/universe? Is Genesis 1 to be taken literally? How long did God take to create?
Human origins: Did God create humans instantaneously or over a period of time? What do pre-human fossil remains indicate (e.g., Neanderthal man)? Who were these creatures?
Basis of the person: What is the relationship between mind, soul, brain, body, etc.? Where is the person? What happens to the person at death, after death, and at the resurrection?
The person and scientific advances: How does ones view of the person affect the role they see for science in advancing human welfare, what are the ethical issues, and what principles would you use to resolve these?
- Is the body sacred, or should we do all we can to improve it through surgery, medicine, and genetic intervention? Are all types of genetic intervention acceptable? Are all goals of genetic intervention acceptable? Why or why not?
- Should advances in modern medicine be used to alleviate all suffering, to the point of hastening death? If extreme measures to save life, especially in the terminally ill, should have limits placed on them, what should those limits be? Isnt it euthanasia to withhold help when you could give it?
- How far should couples (or singles) go to achieve pregnancy? What about surrogate mothers, test-tube babies, artificial wombs, etc.?
Science and technology: How does, or could modern physics change the way we see the world? How has the technological age affected our worldview and/or our view of ourselves, and how could it affect it in the future?
Gender and sexuality: What is the role of our gender and our sexuality in our personhood? Are sexuality and gender part of the image of God, or part of our fallen nature?
The arts, media, and culture: What worldview and view of the person are reflected in contemporary art, media, and culture generally? What does your worldview suggest would be an appropriate response to culture, or appropriate use of culture (including the arts and media)?
Guidelines for grading research papers:

F Does none of the following.

D Shows minimal grasp of worldview concept and its application to the person
and controversial issues of science and culture.

C Presents information on worldviews and the person in well-organized format,
with adequate application to issues in science and culture.

B In a well-organized and logical format, presents information on worldviews and the person with carefully thought-out application to several areas of controversy in science and culture, revealing in the process a good understanding of the relevant scientific or cultural background.

A As above, plus, argument and expression must be of the highest quality plus the students creative insights and supporting evidence are clearly expressed.
Points will be deducted for spelling, grammatical, or typographical errors.
As this is a research paper, supporting evidence and revealing a good understanding of the relevant scientific and cultural background means that your chosen position should be based on factual information. Of course you may also cite other reading you have done, including popular media where appropriate. Not everything needs to be documented (e.g., scientists claim that the Earth is very old). However, where the claims are controversial (e.g., Garden of Eden found!), or particularly significant (e.g., the biblical basis of your position), documentation should be given. Indicate your full sources in the reference section at the end of your paper.
Worldview Reflection/Application(Questions about the lessons taken in the course)
Lesson 1: What is the role of faith, belief, and certainty in my worldview?
Lesson 2:What are the important questions my worldview must answer?
Lesson 3:Is my mind separate from my body?
Lesson 4:How important is your body in your worldview?
Lesson 5:Are body, soul, and spirit separate?
Lesson 6:What happens to the body, soul, and spirit at death?
Lesson 7:How does my brain relate to who I really am?
Lesson 8:How does my worldview affect the way I relate to other people? Do I consider their worldview when I do this?
Lesson 9:What is my view of multiculturalism and the related concepts of diversity and pluralism?
Lesson 10:Can I give a coherent explanation of my worldview, one that would be understood by someone with a different worldview?
Lesson 11:How do scientific theories and evidence fit into my worldview?
Lesson 12:How does my worldview answer the questions of cosmology? Does it matter which scientific theory I support?
Lesson 13:How does Genesis 1 fit into my worldview?
Lesson 14:What would change in my worldview if I believed God createdthrough a long slow process rather than a short fast one?
Lesson 15:Does my belief in the bible depend on refuting evolutionary theory, the big bang theory, or evidence for an old earth?
Lesson 16:Does my worldview have a clear idea of the origin of the earth as well as animal and human life? In my worldview beliefs concerning origins, whats important and non-negotiable and what is secondary and open to modification?
Lesson 17:Are we evolving in any sense of the word?
Lesson 18:How does my worldview deal with questions like these involving advances in human knowledge and the application of this knowledge to human beings? Does my view of the person help in answering these questions?
Lesson 19:Does your worldview, especially your view of the person help answer these questions? Does any of this information modify your worldview? That is, does the changeability of human characteristics, or the role of genes in behavior, modify the way you see human nature or the image of God?
Lesson 20:How does your worldview explain evil and innocent suffering?
Lesson 21:What is the right to life based on in your worldview? When does a human being become, or cease to be, a person?
Lesson 22:Can you see how your position on the mind/body problem can influence your approach to abortion and euthanasia? (Hint: If the body is separate from the mind (or soul or spirit), and secondary to it, then if the mind is not functioning, the body is expendable.)
Lesson 23:Does your worldview contain a belief in the right to die? Why or why not?
Lesson 24:How important is sex in your view of the person, and what is its purpose according to your worldview?
Lesson 25:How important is a clear gender identity or distinct social roles in your view of the person and your worldview?
Lesson 26:How important is the task of renewing culture in your worldview?
Lesson 27:What place do your health related behaviors (diet, sleep, exercise) have in your worldview? Are they important or merely incidental?
Lesson 28:Is a homosexual orientation a blemish on the image of God or is it merely incidental?
Lesson 29:How does your worldview define marriage and family?
Lesson 30:Whats the purpose of education in a Christian worldview?

Lesson 31:What does the area of sport say about our culture? What is an appropriate response from a Christian worldview?
Lesson 32:Whats the place of work in a Christian worldview?
Does your worldview have anything to say about economic systems?
What is the ultimate authority in your worldview?
What is the role of government?
Would you disobey the law? Under what conditions?
What makes humans unique?
Can science help me understand God?
Lesson 33:Are the arts important or just a frivolous entertainment? Why?
Lesson 34:Does your worldview lead you to take a particular position on art, especially so-called modern art (e.g., abstract, non-naturalist paintings and sculpture)?
Lesson 35:What is my position on television, movies and theatre? How do I decide what is objectionable? Acceptable? Recommended?
What does a consideration of television, movies, and theatre teach me about my worldview and the worldview of our culture?
How can Christians redeem television, movies and theatre?
Lesson 36:What is the proper relationship between a Christian and popular culture in areas such as music?
Lesson 37:What is a Christian attitude to the environment, including animals, and how should it affect my behavior?